lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
1 The production of speech sound
- From the technical, signal-oriented point of view, the production of speech is widely described as a
twolevel process. In the first stage the sound is initiated and in the second stage it is filtered on the second
level. This distinction between phases has its origin in the source-filter model of speech production.
- The basic assumption of the model is that the source signal produced at the glottal level is linearly filtered
through the vocal tract. The resulting sound is emitted to the surrounding air through radiation loading
(lips). The model assumes that source and filter are independent of each other.
- From the linguistic phonetic point of view the production of speech is regarded as a superposition of
initiation, phonation, articulation and prosodic organization processes
2 The different between phonetics and phonology Phonetic Phonology
- Deal with the capabilities of the human - Begin when phonetic leave off
articulatory and auditory system with respect - It’s concerned with ways in which the sound
to the sounds and features available for use in
and prosodic features define by phonetics are
language, with the acoustic characteristic of
actually used in natural language
these sounds and features themselves.
- Concerns with the ways in which given
- Is concerned with speech and investigates the
language shapes into distinctive categories of processes which underlines human perception
communication from speech production to - Is essentially the description of the system utterance comprehension
and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
- Is the attempt to record and describe the
sounds of language objectively. It provides an
available way opening our eyes and ears
many nuances of language that we take for granted
- Classification based on a limited number sound
3 Activity of the vocal cords in the larynx in your understanding (example)
- The folds of tough, flexible tissue in the larynx are called vocal cords
- Space between the vocal cords is glottis
- During speech, vocal cords open and close the air passage from the lungs to the mouth - In production
of vowels and voiced consonants, vocal cords vibrate
• There are 4 activities of vocal cord
1. Voiced sound (vibrate, action in producing voice)
+ Vocal cords are closed, then opened suddenly, the air pass through them
+ Vocal cords are closed, glottis is narrow, the air stream makes vocal cord vibrate
2. Voiceless (open, in ordinary breathing action) + The vocal cords are opened
+ The gap between vocal cords is called glottis => the air pass through vocal cords lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
+ Vocal cords aren’t moving, not vibrating => produce voiceless 3. Glottal stop (closed)
+ Vocal cords are closed, no air can pass through them
4. Glottal friction (action in producing whisper)
+ Between the vocal cords opened and closed, we have medium sound “whisper”
4 What makes sound different from each other (example) (What makes vowel different from consonant) Vowels Consonant
- Vowel with no barriers, with vibration
- The air stream goes out of the mouth of vocal cords with muscles
- Vowel is made by voiced air passing
- When consonants are pronounced, the
through different mouth-shaped, the
organ of speech form certain barriers;
different mouth shapes is caused by
the air is completely stopped before
different position of lips and tongue getting out of the mouth; the
- Vowel is classified according to: how
pronunciation is with or without vibration of vocal cords
high is the tongue (high, low, middle),
shapes of lips (rounded, spread), what
- Consonants are classified by:
part of the tongue is involved, how long + Place of articulation or short is vowel + Maner of articulation + State of vocal cords + Position of soft palate
- The most important difference between vowel and consonant is not the way they’re made, but their different distribution
5 The activities of the speech mechanism and give some examples to illustrate (speech mechanism)
- Man processes the ability to produce sound by using his body’s mechanism
- Man has been able to recognize the range of sound which he can emit into a highly efficient system of sound communication
- When speaking, man makes use of organs, those situated in respiratory
- All sounds are result of music contracting
+ Muscles in the chest are used for producing the flow of air
+ Muscle in the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth
+ After passing through the larynx, the air goes pass through the vocal tract, escapes the lung into the atmosphere. • The tongue
- Is the most important part of the organs of speech because it has the greatest variety of movement -
Is divided into 4 parts: tip, blade, front and back • The teeth:
- The teeth (upper and lower) are at the front of the mouth and immediately behind the lips • The lips: can
take up various different positions:
- Rough firmly together in [ p, b, m] lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
- Lower lip touch upper front teeth in [ f, v] • The palate
- Forms the roof the mouth and separated the mouth cavity from the nose cavity - Divided into part: hard and soft
+ Make the tongue touch the palate as much as you can, you can see it is hard
+ Tongue-tip is far away from your teeth; you can see it becomes soft
6 The activities of the air stream
- The most usual source of energy for our vocal activity is provided by an air stream expelled from the lung
- All the essential sounds of English need lung air for their production
- Our utterances are largely shaped by the physiological limitation imposed by the capacity of our lung and
the muscles, which controls their action
- Most speech sounds are produced by pushing air from the lungs out of the body through the mouth or the nose
• Egressive pulmonic air stream
- The air is starting from the lungs or more out of the mouth
- The majority of sounds are produced by egressive pulmonic air stream Ex: I’m cold => It’s very hot
• Ingressive pulmonic air stream
- The air is coming from outside to the lungs
- The air in the mouth is rolling within the mouth • Oral air stream
- In English, we have one or two extra-linguistic sounds such as “tut-tut” which are produced within the aid of the lungs or glottal • Pharyngeal air stream
- The shape and volume of this long chamber may be modified by the movement of the back of the tongue,
by the position of the soft palate when raised, by the raising of the larynx itself 7 The different among
segments, phonemes and allophones • Segment
- Segment is the smallest unit of the word
- In spoken languages, segments will typically be grouped into consonants and vowels • Phonemes
- Are the smallest sound segments that can be distinguished by their contrast within words
- Phonemes are the single sound type which came to be represented by a single symbol Ex: man /mæn/ Moon /mʊn/
=> /æ/ and /ʊ/ are phonemes lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
- To find 2 phonemes in 2 different words, we have to do the contrast. We must satisfy the following conditions
+ The two words must be different in meaning
+ They must have the same number of segment
+ In other words, there is one different segment in the same distribution and position
Ex: Hat / hæt / Cat / kæt / => /h/ # /k/ are the phonemes
- Function: show how to pronounce and distinguish their meaning • Allophone
- Are phonemes divided from the same phonemes in different distributions or relations
- Is one of several similar speech sounds that belongs to the same phoneme
Ex: seed [sid] seen [sĩn] => [i] and [ĩ] are allophones
- To find the allophone of a phoneme, we must consider word in reality
- Allophone of a given phoneme can’t surve to create different word and we say they are moncontrastive
Eg: The phoneme /k/ has 3 allophones aspirated, unaspirated, unexploded
/k/ + car /ka:r/ [k h a]: aspirated + sky /skai/ : unaspirated
+ act /ækt/ [æ k o t]: unexploded
- The allophones of a phoneme occur complementary distribution or in free variation - Allophone of a
phoneme can’t signal a different of meaning - Functions
+ Not signal the different meaning
+ Signal the different pronunciation of the same words
8 What is assimilation of English
- Assimilation is the change of one sound into another sound by influence of neighboring sound
Ex: [n] => [m]: input [Impʊt]
- Is the study of the way in which a consonant can change into another consonant. The main differences between consonant are 3 types
+ Difference in place of articulation
+ Difference in manner of articulation
+ Difference in voicing of articulation
- Assimilation of English is divided into 2 types: lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
+ Regressive Assimilation: P <= F ( preceding-following)
A preceding alveolar plosive sound make the following palatal sound change to become palatal alveolar affricate sound.
+ Progressive assimilation :P:F (following – preceding)
A preceding alveolar plosive voiced lenis make the following palatal voiced change to become a new
palatal – alveolar affricare sound. This assimilation is said to be progressive. Ex: Statement /steɪtmənt/ [steɪpmənt] 1. /t/ + /p,b,m/ = /p/ 2. /t/ + /k,g/ = /k/ 3. /t/ + /j/ = /t / 4. /d/ + /p,b,m/ = /b/ 5. /d/ + /k,g/ = /g/ 6. /d/ + /j/ = /d3/ 7. /s/ + / / = /s/ 8. /z/ + /j/ = /3/ 9. /z/ + /s/ = /s/ 10. /n/ + /k,g/ = /n/
9 What is glottalization (example)
- Is the complete or partial closure of glottis during the articulation of other sound
- Glottalization vowels and voiced consonants is most often realized as creaky voice
- Glottalization voiceless consonant involves complete closure of glottis
- Two ways to represent glottalization IPA
+ The same way as ejective – with an apostrophe [m’aar]
+ With under-tidle for creaky voice ex: [maar] - Glottal reinforcement
+ When a phoneme is accompanied by a glottal stop, we call it glottal
Ex: Fiction [fɪ2kʃən] Milkman [mɪl2kmən] - Glottal replacement
+ When a phoneme is replaced by a glottal stop, we call it glottal replacement Ex: City [siti] => [si?i]
+ The glottal stop is an allophone of / p,t,k / word finally and when preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by a unstressed vowel /l,m,n/ Eg: bottle ['bɔtl] Britain
10 Stress and its function lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
- Stress is phonemic in English.
Ex: ‘desert and de’sert are distinguished by stress, one is noun and one is verb
- Stress is as suprasegmental feature of utterance applying to the whole syllables
- Stress can be studied from the point of view of production and perception • Production
- To make speech clear, is put above the syllable
- Is produced by using more air from the lungs
- They are different in quality from the neighboring vowels, often in a higher pitch and a longer duration •
Perception: there are 4 main signals of stress
- Loudness is a component of prominent
- The length: stressed syllables are longer than the others
- The frequency of vibration of the vocal cord - Difference in quality
• Word stress: is the pronunciation of a syllable with more force than surrounding syllables • 3 types of word stress
- Two syllable nouns and adjectives
- Words which can be used as both nouns and verbs - Compound nouns • Functions
1. The grammatical category to which the word belongs Noun Verb ‘Produce Pro'duce ‘Present Pre’sent ‘Conflict Con’flict ... ... Noun phrase Compound noun White ‘house ‘White house Green ‘market ‘Green market ... ...
2. The phonological syllable structure of the word ‘Diplomat Di’lomacy Diplo’matic ‘Photograph Pho’tography Photo’graphic ... ... ...
3. In utterance, the significate of the word on linguistic level
- Nature of stress In English, we can use the word “stress” to refer to the way we emphasize something.
Eg: I would like to stress that..
- We also use it to refer to the sound of speech
- In listening, we can hear that certain element seem to be more emphasized • Stress has 2 main semantic function: lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
- It may distinguish 2 words which are likely
- The speaker wishes to emphasize the syllable/word
• A stress syllable combines 5 features: + It is longer computer
+ It is louder computer + It has a change in pitch from the syllable coming before and after words +
It’s said clearly, vowel sound is pures
+ It uses larger facial movement • Stress in phrase verbs
- Phrasal verb with preposition: not stress the proposition
- Phrasal verb with adverbs: stress the adverbs
11 The English intonation and its function
- When speaking, speakers generally raise or lower the pitch of the voice, forming pitch patterns. The
changes in pitch are called intonation
- Intonation is often called the melody of language since it refers to the pattern of pitch changes that we use when speaking
- Intonation is the study of phonetic feature of utterance, applying to a word which representing to a sentence as a whole • Nature of intonation
- The messages we convey depend as much on how we say something as on what we actually say
- When we produce a word, our decision will concern with the whole word, that is to say, we are expressing the suprasegment features
- Suprasegmental are characteristics which extend over entire utterance, whether they are long texts or just one word
• The importance of intonation
- The importance of intonation is not so much that is a good accent, or of the night way of speaking, a good
pronunciation includes a correct intonation as well as correct articulation rhythm
- The importance of intonation is also that it is a means of saying different things. If we change our
intonation of a sentence, we change its meaning.
- In Vn, pitch is used to distinguish word meaning 2 signal difference meaning of 2 words
- In English, pitch change does contribute significantly to the meaning of English sentence • Function of intonation
a. Attitudinal: show emotion, feeling
Ex: John! How nice to see you! (High fall – surprising)
b. Grammatical: show different of sentence Ex: Is it interesting? Do you Angry?
c. Accentual, concentrate attention
Ex: We’re ‘learning English lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284 We’re leaning ‘English d. Interactive
+ to show the main care of the message
+ to conduct toward the response of the listener
Ex: If you like, we can go via MANchester
• In crystal, 6 functions of intonation are listed - Emotional - Grammatical - Information structure - Texture - Psychological - Indexical
12 What makes stress different from intonation Stress Intonation
- Stress is said to be sth that applied to
- Is another part of suprasegment phonology
property of syllable and stress is a part of English of suprasegmental phonology of English
- Stress refers to the syntactic, lexical
- It refers to the meaning of the whole
grammatical function of a certain word sentence as well as attitudinal,
grammatical, accentual, interactive and discolarse functions
13 The speech chain in producing speech sound => prove - Is producing speech sound
- When we are speaking, a number of activities involve one part of the speaker, and another part of listener
There are 3 stages: psychological stage Physiological stage Physical stage
First stage: Psychological stages – to answer the question
- What happen to those activities lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
- How do activities occur from the speaker
- How do activities transmit to the listener
• Speaker: In the first stage, people use 5 senses to form the idea
Senses – By smelling => “good smell”
- Tasting. => “Delicious”
- Seeing. => “Beautiful”
- Hearing. => “Good mind”
- Touching. => “Smooth”
Second stage: physiological stage
- Nervous system carries the message from the brain to the mouth
- The brain orders the mouth speaking
- The mouth is working then varying [air pressure] coming out with different level (low/high) Third stages: Physical stage
- The movement of out (organs of speech) will creates disturbance in the air - Varying air pressures
may be investigated or measured by the machine • Listener:
- Physiological stage: at this stage the nervous system carries the message to the brain
- Psychological stage: is the transmission of the information along the nervous system to the brain
14 Understanding of glottis, fortis and lenis - Glottis
+When vocal cords are opened, the air go pass through the vocal cords freely => produce voiceless. The gap
between the vocal cords is called glottis + Vocal cords aren’t moving, not vibrating
- Fortis: vocal cords are opened, much air goes through the vocal cords, so that is strong force of articulation, we called it fortis - Lenis:
+ Vocal cords are closed then opened suddenly
+ The air goes pass through vocal cords
+ The air stream makes vocal cords vibrate => produce voiced sound
+ At the same time, little air goes pass through, we have week force of articulation, we called it lenis
15 What are criteria of consonant sounds
- Voiced: /b, d, g, v, , z, ʒ, d ʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/
- Voiceless: / p, t, k, f, ɵ, s, ʃ, t ʃ, h/
• Classification of consonants is based on 4 criteria lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
- The place of articulation
- The manner of articulation
- The state of the vocal cords: Voiceless + voiced
- The position of soft palate: (oral/ nasal)
+ When the soft palate is down:
 It closes the way to the mouth
 It opens the way to the nose, air stream goes pass through the nose for nasal sounds /m, n, ŋ/ + When the soft palate is up:
 It closes the way to the nose, opens the way to the mouth, air stream goes to the mouth for oral sounds
Ex: / ŋ / velar, nasal, voiced, nasal
/p/ bilabial, plosive, voiceless, oral
Note: /j, w/ never pronounced alone, they are pronounced with the other vowels • Place of articulation
- Bilabials: p, b, m, w - Labiodentals: f, v - Dentals: ɵ,
- Alveolar: t, d, s, z, l, n - Post-alveolar: r
- Palatal alveolar: ʃ, t ʃ, ʒ, d ʒ,
- Palatal: j (yard, yet, you, your) - Velar: k, g, ŋ - Glottal friction: h
- Glottal stop: ] ( the vocal cord stops completely) • Manner of articulation
- Plosive: p, b, t, d, k, g
- Fricative: f, v, ɵ, , s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h - Affricate: tʃ, dʒ - Nasal: m, n, ŋ - Lateral: L
- Glides: r, j, w • State of vocal cords:
- Voiced: /b, d, g, v, , z, ʒ, d ʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/
- Voiceless: / p, t, k, f, ɵ, s, ʃ, tʃ, h/ • Position of soft palate:
- Oral: b, d, g, p, k, t, s, ʃ, h, v, z, ɵ, , tʃ, dʒ, l, w, j, r - Nasal: m, n, ŋ lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
16 The English Diphthongs and their classification
- Is a complex sound with 2 vowel elements but pronounced as 1 syllable
- Is a glide from 1 vowel to another, and the whole glide acts like 1 of long, simple vowels - Are in 3 group: We classify diphthongs & according to the
- Closing: moving from the mouth opening to the mouth closing - glide to the second sound:
- Centering: moving to the central 17 Velarization [ŋ]
- Nasal [ŋ] is velarized when it stands before the velar sounds [k, g] Ex: Anchor [æŋkə] Uncle [ʌŋkəl] Think [θɪŋk] Anxious [æŋkʃəs]
19 In what way can pitch change into intonation • Pitch should be + Linguistic significant + Under speaker’s control + Perceptible
+ Contrasted within unit of phonology
- Intonation is often called the melody of language since it refer to the pattern of pitch change that we use when we speak
- When speaking, we raise or lower the pitch patterns. The change is called intonation lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
20 Segmental and Suprasegmental
- Segmental is the smallest piece of sound divided from a speech Ex: hit = 3 segmental - Segmental phonology is
+ The study of contrastive & non-contrastive phonemes
+ The study of how sounds are affected by their combination words in their relation in sentence
+ The study of sound distinction & sound complementary distinctive
• Suprasegmental is the study of weak & strong syllable as well as weak & strong form, stress, pitch change
and intonation. It’s all the study of different sound & characteristic from the point of view of production & perception
21 Tone – unit of intonation
- Tonic syllable: a syllable that carries a tone is called tonic syllable
Ex: Is it you = 3 syllables, but third syllable carries tone => Tonic syllable
- Tonic stress: tonic syllables that with high degree of prominence are called tonic stress Ex: I WANT to talk to you I want to TALK to you I want to talk to YOU
- Tone unit: A utterance consist of a unit greater in size than the syllable is needed => called tone unit Ex: John, is it you?
2 tone unit – John – Is it you?
- Speech => utterance => tone unit => syllable => morphemes • 5 types of tone - Falling in pitch - High rising - Low rising - Falling – rising - Raising - falling
22 In what way can deriving occur -
The approximant /j, w, r, l/ is devoiced when standing after the fortis glosive /p, t, k/
Ex: plan [plæn], cry [krai], play [plei] -
Fricative devoicing of English represents a more natural articulation such as: has to go lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284
23 What are the criteria to the English sound vowels -
Vowels are made by voiced air passing through different mouth, shape of mouth is caused by different
position of the tongue and lips. - Vowels included: • Monophthongs - Is a pure vowel sound -
When we pronounce it, organs of speech doesn’t change - Included: z, I, u
• Diphthongs: is a complex sound consisting of 2 vowels but pronounced as one syllable • Triphthongs -
Are the most complex sound of vowels type of English -
They can be difficult to pronounce & recognize
Ex: power /paʊə/, lower /laʊə/, ... • Classification of vowels -
Shape of lips: spread – unrounded – rounded -
Height of tongue: high – middle – low -
Position of tongue: front – central – back -
Length of sources: Long: I, ʒ, u, ɔ, a lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284 Short: 7 sounds 24 Aspiration -
A period of voiceless after the release of articulation -
Happens only with 3 fortis plosive /p, t, k/ -
Is an extra puff of air sometimes follows a speech sound lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284 -
In English, a voiceless plosive as /p, t, k/ is aspirated whenever it stands as the only consonant at the
beginning of the stress syllable • Aspirated [h] -
Fortis plosive will be aspirated when stands as the only consonant of the stress syllable
Ex: important /ɪmpɔtnt/ => [ɪmphɔtnt] • Weak aspiration [h] -
Fortis plosive will be weak aspiration when it stands at the end of the stress syllable
Ex: upper /ʌpə/ => [ʌp-hə]
• Unaspirated: standing after the sound /s/ Ex: sport /spɔt/ => [spɔt]
25 Transcription and description
• Transcription: the symbol representing of sound -
Used for showing how the sounds are pronounced - 2 types
+ Phonemic transcription (broad transcription)
+ Phonetic transcription (narrow transcription)
• Description: Is used to describe the phonetic features of sounds. The phonetic features of sound are: - Vowel/consonant - Long/ short - Voiced/ voiceless - Oral/ nasal - The way to pronounce
26 Elision and Liaison
• Elision: In casual speaking, one sound may be missing for the convenience of speaking, but it doesn’t
cause any confusion or misunderstanding - 2 types: + Consonant missing + Vowel missing
• Liaison (linking): Is the linking of words in speech, in particular when the second words begin with a vowel - 2 types:
+ Words ending in a consonant sound are linked to words beginning in a vowel sound: consonant – to – vowel
+ Words ending in a vowel sound are linked to words beginning in a vowel sound: vowel – to – vowel
Downloaded by Trann Anh (trannanh14062003@gmail.com) lOMoAR cPSD| 48641284 • Phiên âm: Interesting
/ˈɪn.trə.stɪŋ/9 segments Medicine / med.ɪ.sən/ 7 Evening /ˈiːv.nɪŋ/ 5 History /ˈhɪs.tər.i/ 6 Laboratory /ləˈbɒr.ə.tər.i/ 9 Similar /ˈsɪm.ɪ.lər/ 6 Literal /ˈlɪt.ər.əl/ 7 Basically /ˈbeɪ.sɪ.kəl.i/ 7 Every /ˈev.ri/ 4 Nursery /ˈnɜː.sər.i/ 6 Camera /ˈkæm.rə/ 5 Elementary /ˌel.ɪˈmen.tər.i/ 9 Business /ˈbɪz.nɪs/ 6 Desperate /ˈdes.pər.ət/ 8 Necessary /ˈnes.ə.ser.i/ Diamond /ˈdaɪə.mənd/ 6 Virtually /ˈvɜː.tʃu.ə.li/ 7 Extraordinary /ɪkˈstrɔː.dɪn.ər.i/ 12 Cemetery /ˈsem.ə.tri/ 8 Different /ˈdɪf.ər.ənt/ 7 Momentary /ˈməʊ.mən.tər.i/ 9 General /ˈdʒen.ər.əl/ 6 Deliberately /dɪˈlɪb.ər.ət.li/ 11 Miniature /ˈmɪn.ə.tʃər/ 6 Laughable /ˈlɑː.fə.bəl/ 6 Actually /ˈæk.tʃu.ə.li/ 7 Practically /ˈpræk.tɪ.kəl.i/ 9 Aspirin /ˈæs.prɪn/ 6 Several /ˈsev.ər.əl/ 6 Fricative /ˈfrɪk.ə.tɪv/ 8 Sophomore /ˈsɒf.ə.mɔːr/ 6 Comfortable /ˈkʌm.fə.tə.bəl/ 8 Ivory /ˈaɪ.vər.i/ 5 Opera /ˈɒp.ər.ə/ 5 Preference /ˈpref.ər.əns/ 8 Favorite /ˈfeɪ.vər.ɪt/ 7 Diaper /ˈdaɪ.pər/ 4 Temperature ˈtem.prə.tʃər/ 8 Barbara /ba:brə/ 6 Federal /ˈfed.ər.əl/ 7 Melody /ˈmel.ə.di/ 6 Traveling /ˈtræv.əl.ɪŋ 7 Classify /ˈklæs.ɪ.faɪ/ 8 Veterinarian
/ˌvet.ər.ɪˈneə.ri.ən/ 13 Respiratory /rɪˈspɪr.ə.tər.i/ 10 Accidentally /ˌæk.sɪˈden.təl.i/ 11 Biology /baɪˈɒl.ə.dʒi/ 7 Difference /ˈdɪf.ər.əns/ 8 Mathematics /ˌmæθˈmæt.ɪks/ 10 Imaginary /ɪˈmædʒ.ɪ.nər.i/ 9 Discovery /dɪˈskʌv.ər.i/ 9 Average /ˈæv.ər.ɪdʒ/ 6 Caramel /ˈkær.ə.məl/ 7 Literature /ˈlɪt.rə.tʃər/ 7 Reverence /ˈrev.ər.əns/ 6 Mystery /ˈmɪs.tər.i/ 7
Downloaded by Trann Anh (trannanh14062003@gmail.com)