READING PRACTICE
The Impact of Wilderness Tourism A
The market for tourism In remote areas is booming as never before. Countries ail across the world
are actively promoting their ‘wilderness’ regions - such as mountains, Arctic lands, deserts, small
islands and wetlands - to high-spending tourists. The attraction of these areas is obvious.- by
definition, wilderness tourism requires little or no initial investment. But that does not mean that there
is no cost. As the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development recognized,
these regions are fragile (i.e. highly vulnerable to abnormal pressures) not just in terms of their
ecology, but also in terms of the culture of their inhabitants. The three most significant types of fragile
environment in these respects, and also in terms of the proportion of the Earth's surface they cover,
are deserts, mountains and Arctic areas. An important characteristic is their marked seasonality, with
harsh conditions prevailing for many months each year. Consequently, most human activities,
including tourism, are limited to quite clearly defined parts of the year.
Tourists are drawn to these regions by their natural landscape beauty and the unique cultures of
their indigenous people. And poor governments in these isolated areas have welcomed the new
breed of ‘adventure tourist’, grateful for the hard currency they bring. For several years now, tourism
has been the prime source of foreign exchange in Nepal and Bhutan. Tourism is also a key element
in the economies of Arctic zones such as Lapland and Alaska and in desert areas such as Ayers
Rock in Australia and Arizona’s Monument Valley. B
Once a location is established as a main tourist destination, the effects on the local community are
profound. When hill-farmers, for example, can make more money in a few weeks working as porters
for foreign trekkers than they can in a year working in their fields, it is not surprising that many of
them give up their farm-work, which is thus left to other members of the family. In some hill-regions,
this has led to a serious decline in farm output and a change in the local diet, because there is
insufficient labour to maintain terraces and irrigation systems and tend to crops. The result has been
that many people in these regions have turned to outside supplies of rice and other foods.
In Arctic and desert societies, year-round survival has traditionally depended on hunting animals and
fish and collecting fruit over a relatively short season. However, as some inhabitants become
Involved in tourism, they no longer have time to collect wild food; this has led to increasing
dependence on bought food and stores. Tourism is not always the culprit behind such changes. All
kinds of wage labour, or government handouts, tend to undermine traditional survival systems.
Whatever the cause, the dilemma is always the same: what happens If these new, external sources of income dry up?
The physical impact of visitors is another serious problem associated with the growth In adventure
tourism. Much attention has focused on erosion along major trails, but perhaps more important are
the deforestation and impacts on water supplies arising from the need to provide tourists with
cooked food and hot showers. In both mountains and deserts, slow-growing trees are often the main
sources of fuel and water supplies may be limited or vulnerable to degradation through heavy use. C
Stories about the problems of tourism have become legion in the last few years. Yet it does not have
to be a problem. Although tourism inevitably affects the region in which it takes place, the costs to
these fragile environments and their local cultures can be minimized. Indeed, it can even be a
vehicle for reinvigorating local cultures, as has happened with the Sherpas of Nepal’s Khumbu Valley
and in some Alpine villages. And a growing number of adventure tourism operators are trying to
ensure that their activities benefit the local population and environment over the long term.
In the Swiss Alps, communities have decided that their future depends on integrating tourism more
effectively with the local economy. Local concern about the rising number of second home
developments in the Swiss Pays d'Enhaut resulted in limits being imposed on their growth. There
has also been a renaissance in communal cheese production In the area, providing the locals with a
reliable source of income that does not depend on outside visitors.
Many of the Arctic tourist destinations have been exploited by outside companies, who employ
transient workers and repatriate most of the profits to their home base. But some Arctic communities
are now operating tour businesses themselves, thereby ensuring that the benefits accrue locally. For
instance, a native corporation in Alaska, employing local people. Is running an air tour from
Anchorage to Kotzebue, where tourists eat Arctic food, walk on the tundra and watch local musicians and dancers.
Native people In the desert regions of the American Southwest have followed similar strategies,
encouraging tourists to visit their pueblos and reservations to purchase high-quality handicrafts and
artwork. The Acoma and San lldefonso pueblos have established highly profitable pottery
businesses, while the Navajo and Hopi groups have been similarly successful with jewellery.
Too many people living in fragile environments have lost control over their economies, their culture
and their environment when tourism has penetrated their homelands. Merely restricting tourism
cannot be the solution to the imbalance, because people's desire to see new places will not just
disappear. Instead, communities in fragile environments must achieve greater control over tourism
ventures in their regions, in order to balance their needs and aspirations with the demands of
tourism. A growing number of communities are demonstrating that, with firm communal decision-
making, this is possible. The critical question now is whether this can become the norm, rather than the exception. Questions 1-3
Reading Passage has three sections, A-C.
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number i-vi in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i
The expansion of international tourism in recent years ii
How local communities can balance their own needs with the demands of wilderness tourism
iii Fragile regions and the reasons for the expansion of tourism there
iv Traditional methods of food-supply in fragile regions v
Some of the disruptive effects of wilderness tourism
vi The economic benefits of mass tourism 1 Section A _____ 2 Section B _____ 3 Section C_____ Questions 4-9
Do the following statements reflect the opinion of the writer of Reading Passage? In boxes
on your answer sheet, write 4-9
YES if the statement reflects the opinion of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the opinion of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 4
The low financial cost of selling up wilderness tourism makes it attractive to many countries. 5
Deserts, mountains and Arctic regions are examples of environments that are
both ecologically and culturally fragile. 6
Wilderness tourism operates throughout the year in fragile areas. 7
The spread of tourism in certain hill-regions has resulted in a fall in the amount of food produced locally. 8
Traditional food-gathering in desert societies was distributed evenly over the year. 9
Government handouts do more damage than tourism does to traditional patterns of food-gathering. Questions 10-13
Complete the table below.
Choose ONE WORD from Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.
The positive ways In which some local communities have responded to tourism People/Location Activity
Revived production of 10 Swiss Pays d'Enhaut Arctic communities Operate 11 businesses Acoma and San lldefonso Navajo and Hopi Produce and sell 12 Produce and sell 13
Plans to protect the forests of Europe
Forests are one of the main elements of our natural heritage. The decline of Europe's forests over
the last decade and a half has led to an increasing awareness and understanding of the serious
imbalances which threaten them. European countries are becoming increasingly concerned by major
threats to European forests, threats which know no frontiers other than those of geography or
climate: air pollution, soil deterioration, the increasing number of forest fires and sometimes even
the mismanagement of our woodland and forest heritage. There has been a growing awareness of
the need for countries to get together to co-ordinate their policies. In December 1990, Strasbourg
hosted the first Ministerial Conference on the protection of Europe's forests. The conference brought
together 31 countries from both Western and Eastern Europe. The topics discussed included the co-
ordinated study of the destruction of forests, as well as how to combat forest fires and the extension
of European research programs on the forest ecosystem. The preparatory work for the conference
had been undertaken at two meetings of experts. Their initial task was to decide which of the many
forest problems of concern to Europe involved the largest number of countries and might be the
subject of joint action. Those confined to particular geographical areas, such as countries bordering
the Mediterranean or the Nordic countries therefore had to be discarded. However, this does not
mean that in future they will be ignored.
As a whole, European countries see forests as performing a triple function: biological, economic and
recreational. The first is to act as a 'green lung' for our planet; by means of photosynthesis,
forests produce oxygen through the transformation of solar energy, thus fulfilling what for humans is
the essential role of an immense, non-polluting power plant. At the same time, forests provide
raw materials for human activities through their constantly renewed production of wood. Finally,
they offer those condemned to spend five days a week in an urban environment an unrivalled area
of freedom to unwind and take part in a range of leisure activities, such as hunting, riding and
hiking. The economic importance of forests has been understood since the dawn of man - wood was
the first fuel. The other aspects have been recognised only for a few centuries but they are
becoming more and more important. Hence, there is a real concern throughout Europe about the
damage to the forest environment which threatens these three basic roles.
The myth of the 'natural' forest has survived, yet there are effectively no remaining 'primary' forests
in Europe. All European forests are artificial, having been adapted and exploited by man
for thousands of years. This means that a forest policy is vital, that it must transcend national
frontiers and generations of people, and that it must allow for the inevitable changes that take place
in the forests, in needs, and hence in policy. The Strasbourg conference was one of the first events
on such a scale to reach this conclusion. A general declaration was made that 'a central place in
any ecologically coherent forest policy must be given to continuity over time and to the possible
effects of unforeseen events, to ensure that the full potential of these forests is maintained'.
That general declaration was accompanied by six detailed resolutions to assist national
policymaking. The first proposes the extension and systematisation of surveillance sites to monitor
forest decline. Forest decline is still poorly understood but leads to the loss of a high proportion of a
tree's needles or leaves. The entire continent and the majority of species are now affected: between
30% and 50% of the tree population. The condition appears to result from the cumulative effect of
a number of factors, with atmospheric pollutants the principal culprits. Compounds of nitrogen
and sulphur dioxide should be particularly closely watched. However, their effects are
probably accentuated by climatic factors, such as drought and hard winters, or soil imbalances such
as soil acidification, which damages the roots. The second resolution concentrates on the need to
preserve the genetic diversity of European forests. The aim is to reverse the decline in the number of
tree species or at least to preserve the 'genetic material' of all of them. Although forest fires do not
affect all of Europe to the same extent, the amount of damage caused the experts to propose as the
third resolution that the Strasbourg conference consider the establishment of a European databank
on the subject. All information used in the development of national preventative policies would
become generally available. The subject of the fourth resolution discussed by the ministers was
mountain forests. In Europe, it is undoubtedly the mountain ecosystem which has changed most
rapidly and is most at risk. A thinly scattered permanent population and development of leisure
activities, particularly skiing, have resulted in significant long-term changes to the local ecosystems.
Proposed developments include a preferential research program on mountain forests. The fifth
resolution relaunched the European research network on the physiology of trees, called Eurosilva.
Eurosilva should support joint European research on tree diseases and their physiological and
biochemical aspects. Each country concerned could increase the number of scholarships and other
financial support for doctoral theses and research projects in this area. Finally, the conference
established the framework for a European research network on forest ecosystems. This would also
involve harmonising activities in individual countries as well as identifying a number of priority
research topics relating to the protection of forests. The Strasbourg conference's main concern was
to provide for the future. This was the initial motivation, one now shared by all 31 participants
representing 31 European countries. Their final text commits them to on-going discussion between
government representatives with responsibility for forests. Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In boxes
on your answer sheet, write 1-7
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this 1
Forest problems of Mediterranean countries are to be discussed at the next meeting of experts. 2
Problems in Nordic countries were excluded because they are outside the European Economic Community. 3
Forests are a renewable source of raw material. 4
The biological functions of forests were recognised only in the twentieth century. 5
Natural forests still exist in parts of Europe. 6
Forest policy should be limited by national boundaries. 7
The Strasbourg conference decided that a forest policy must allow for the possibility of change. Questions 8-13
Look at the following statements issued by the conference.
Which six of the following statements, A-J, refer to the resolutions that were issued? Match the
statements with the appropriate resolutions (Questions 8-13).
Write the correct letter, A-J, in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
A All kinds of species of trees should be preserved.
B Fragile mountain forests should be given priority in research programs.
C The surviving natural forests of Europe do not need priority treatment.
D Research is to be better co-ordinated throughout Europe.
E Information on forest fires should be collected and shared.
F Loss of leaves from trees should be more extensively and carefully monitored.
G Resources should be allocated to research into tree diseases.
H Skiing should be encouraged in thinly populated areas.
Soil imbalances such as acidification should be treated with compounds of nitrogen and I sulphur. J
Information is to be systematically gathered on any decline in the condition of forests. 8 Resolution 1 9 Resolution 2 10 Resolution 3 11 Resolution 4 12 Resolution 5 13 Resolution 6 Questions 14
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in box 15 on your answer sheet.
15 What is the best title for Reading Passage?
A The biological, economic and recreational role of forests
B Plans to protect the forests of Europe
C The priority of European research into ecosystems
D Proposals for a world-wide policy on forest management
Do literate women make better mothers?
Children in developing countries are healthier and more likely to survive past the age of five when
their mothers can read and write. Experts In public health accepted this idea decades ago, but until
now no one has been able to show that a woman's ability to read in Itself Improves her children’s chances of survival.
Most literate women learnt to read In primary school, and the fact that a woman has had an
education may simply indicate her family’s wealth or that It values Its children more highly. Now a
long-term study carried out In Nicaragua has eliminated these factors by showing that teaching
reading to poor adult women, who would otherwise have remained Illiterate, has a direct effect on
their children’s health and survival.
In 1979, the government of Nicaragua established a number of social programmes, including a
National Literacy Crusade. By 1985, about 300,000 Illiterate adults from all over the country, many of
whom had never attended primary school, had learnt how to read, write and use numbers.
During this period, researchers from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the Central American
Institute of Health In Nicaragua, the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua and the Costa
Rican Institute of Health Interviewed nearly 3,000 women, some of whom had learnt to read as
children, some during the literacy crusade and some who had never learnt at all. The women were
asked how many children they had given birth to and how many of them had died In Infancy. The
research teams also examined the surviving children to find out how well-nourished they were.
The Investigators' findings were striking. In the late 1970s, the infant mortality rate for the children of
Illiterate mothers was around 110 deaths per thousand live births. At this point In their lives, those
mothers who later went on to learn to read had a similar level Of child mortality (105/1000). For
women educated in primary school, however, the Infant mortality rate was significantly lower, at 80 per thousand.
In 1985, after the National Literacy Crusade had ended, the infant mortality figures for those who
remained illiterate and for those educated In primary school remained more or less unchanged. For
those women who learnt to read through the campaign, the infant mortality rate was 84 per
thousand, an impressive 21 points lower than for those women who were still Illiterate. The children
of the newly-literate mothers were also better nourished than those of women who could not read.
Why are the children of literate mothers better off? According to Peter Sandiford of the Liverpool
School of Tropical Medicine, no one Knows for certain. Child health was not on the curriculum during
the women’s lessons, so fie and his colleagues are looking at other factors. They are working with
the same group of 3,000 women, to try to find out whether reading mothers make better use of
hospitals and clinics, opt for smaller families, exert more control at home, learn modern childcare
techniques more quickly, or whether they merely have more respect for themselves and their children.
The Nicaraguan study may have important implications for governments and aid agencies that need
to know where to direct their resources. Sandiford says that there is increasing evidence that female
education, at any age, is "an important health intervention in its own right’. The results of the study
lend support to the World Bank's recommendation that education budgets in developing countries
should be increased, not just to help their economies, but also to improve child health.
'We’ve known for a long time that maternal education is important,’ says John Cleland of the London
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. ‘But we thought that even if we started educating girls
today, we'd have to wait a generation for the pay off. The Nicaraguan study suggests we may be able to bypass that.'
Cleland warns that the Nicaraguan crusade was special in many ways, and similar campaigns
elsewhere might not work as well. It is notoriously difficult to teach adults skills that do not have an
immediate impact on their everyday lives, and many literacy campaigns in other countries have been
much less successful. 'The crusade was part of a larger effort to bring a better life to the people,’
says Cleland. Replicating these conditions in other countries will be a major challenge for development workers. Questions 1-5
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-J, below.
Write the correct letter, A-J, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
The Nicaraguan National Literacy Crusade aimed to teach large numbers of illiterate 1 to read and write.
Public health experts have known for many years that there is a connection between child health and 2
However, it has not previously been known whether these two factors were directly linked or not.
This question has been investigated by 3 in Nicaragua.
As a result, factors such as 4
and attitudes to children have been eliminated, and it has been shown that 5
can in itself improve infant health and survival. A child literacy men and women B
C an international research team D medical care E mortality F maternal literacy
G adults and children H paternal literacy I a National Literacy Crusade J family wealth Show workspace Questions 6-11
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 6-11 on your answer sheet, write .
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 6
About a thousand of the women interviewed by the researchers had learnt to read when they were children. 7
Before the National Literacy Crusade, illiterate women had approximately the
same levels of infant mortality as those who had learnt to read in primary school. 8
Before and after the National Literacy Crusade, the child mortality rate for the
illiterate women stayed at about 110 deaths for each thousand live births. 9
The women who had learnt to read through the National Literacy Crusade
showed the greatest change in infant mortality levels. 10
The women who had learnt to read through the National Literacy Crusade had
the lowest rates of child mortality. 11
After the National Literacy Crusade, the children of the women who remained
illiterate were found to be severely malnourished. Show workspace Questions 12-13
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 12 and 13 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO important implications drawn from the Nicaraguan study are mentioned by the writer of the passage? A
It is better to educate mature women than young girls. B
Similar campaigns in other countries would be equally successful. C
The effects of maternal literacy programmes can be seen very quickly. D
Improving child health can quickly affect a country’s economy. E
Money spent on female education will improve child health.