Chapter 2 - Identifying Issues and Conclusions in Arguments môn Xác suất thống kê| Trường Đại học Ngoại Thương

Chapter 2: What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? Kinds of Issues
•Descriptive issues are those that raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, or future.
•Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what we should do or what is right or wrong, good or bad. Searching for the issue
The basic question or issue being addressed can sometimes be explicitly stated by the
writer/speaker. Phrases like "The question I am raising is:" indicate this.
The issue may also be identified at the beginning of the text or even in the title.
If not explicitly stated, the issue has to be inferred from other clues like what the writer/speaker
is reacting to or concerned about.
Check for background information on the author/speaker as this can provide clues to the central issue.
There may not be only one correct way to state the issue - as long as it addresses the overall question/argument.
Make sure what you identify as the issue meets the definition of an "issue."
When the issue is not explicit, the surest way to detect it is to first locate the conclusion.
In many cases, you need to find the conclusion before you can identify the issue.
The first step in critical evaluation, when the issue is not clear, is to find the conclusion.
We cannot critically evaluate until we find the conclusion.
Searching for the author’s or speaker’s conclusion
Look for a statement or set of statements the writer/speaker wants the audience to believe based on other statements.
Conclusions are inferred or derived from reasoning.
Conclusions require other ideas to support them.
Unsupported claims are opinions, not conclusions.
Understanding conclusions is essential for critical reading/listening.
The conclusion is what the communicator is trying to prove by presented ideas.
Supporting beliefs are not conclusions as they prove something else.
Communicators may not always make conclusions explicit, so they must be inferred.
Using this Critical Question:” Should I accept that conclusion on the basis of what is supporting it?”
Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion Ask what the issue is. Look for indicator words. Look in likely locations.
Remember what a conclusion is not.
Check the context of the communication and the author’s background.
Chapter 3: What Are the Reasons?
•Reasons are explanations or rationales for why we should believe a particular conclusion.
•The support structure of a strong argument is called the warrants, which are the reasons and evidence.
•You can't determine the worth of a conclusion until identifying the reasons and evidence.
Initiating the Questioning Process
An argument consists of a conclusion and the reasons meant to support it.
The first step in identifying reasons is to approach the argument with a questioning attitude.
The first question to ask is "why". You've identified the conclusion, now you want to know why it makes sense.
A statement is not a reason if it does not answer "Why does the writer/speaker believe the conclusion?".
For a statement to be a reason, it must be used as support/grounds for the conclusion by the communicator.
Find the conclusion in the example paragraph, highlight it, then ask the "why" question.
Statements that answer the "why" question are the reasons.
The reason can be paraphrased as: Most faculty believe student evaluations used for salaries would damage higher education.
Find the conclusion and reason in the second example paragraph using the same process.
Any idea the communicator seems to use to support their conclusion should be treated as a
reason at this stage, even if you don't think it actually provides support.
You want to be fair and consider the argument from the communicator's perspective using the
principle of charity at this stage.
Wait to carefully evaluate the strength of the argument and reasons later.
Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight
A set of reasons may support one conclusion, which then functions as the main reason for another conclusion.
Reasons can also be supported by other reasons.
In complicated arguments, it is frequently difficult to keep the structure straight in your mind as you evaluate critically.
To overcome this, develop your own organizing procedure to keep reasons and conclusions
separate and in a logical pattern.
The important thing is to keep reasons and conclusions straight as you prepare to evaluate.
Weak reasons create weak reasoning!
Reasons First, Then Conclusions
Weak-sense critical thinking occurs when someone eagerly shares an opinion as a conclusion but has no reasons when asked.
Managed reasoning refers to an argument that begins with a conclusion, then chooses
reasons/evidence because they help reach the predetermined conclusion, not because the warrants are truly strong.
With managed reasoning, someone with a firm conclusion goes "shopping" for reasons/evidence
to convince others of their view.
Be aware of your own tendency to form conclusions too quickly - avoid "reverse logic" or
"backward reasoning" where reasons follow the selection of a conclusion.
Ideally, reasons and evidence are the tools that shape and modify conclusions, not the other way around.
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers
Put the thesis/conclusion in the introduction using indicator phrases, and restate it in the conclusion.
Each reason should respond to the "why" question - why does the writer believe the thesis?
Use indicator words to introduce reasons and evidence (a list was provided earlier).
Think of the issue, conclusion, and reasons as the skeleton of the argument.
The stronger this skeleton is, the stronger the overall argument will be.
The introduction and conclusion frame the argument, while the body paragraphs present reasons.
Develop reasons fully so they clearly answer why the thesis/conclusion is believed.
If a reason doesn't answer the "why" question, remove it or strengthen its explanation.
Organize reasons and evidence in a logical flow to support the thesis statement.
Follow general essay/speech structure guidelines to present the argument clearly.
The relationship between issuses, conclusion and reasons
Chapter 2 provides guidelines for locating the issue and conclusion, which it
describes as the two most important parts of the structure of an argument. Then
Chapter 3 focuses on identifying a third essential element - the reasons. It discusses
techniques for identifying the group of reasons and evidence that are intended to
substantiate a particular conclusion. So Chapter 3 takes the next logical step after
Chapter 2 by addressing how to analyze the support and reasoning behind a stated
conclusion, once the conclusion and issue have been identified according to the
guidance in Chapter 2. The chapters seem to be presenting a sequential process for
analyzing the different components of an argument.