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Chapter 6 teacher notes illuminate digital | Đại học công nghiệp Việt Trì
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Môn: Business management (BM11) 6 tài liệu
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Chapter 6: Research methods Introduction
Computers hinder children’s learning 6 handout number .1 Activity type Starter
This handout can be used right at the start of the year 1
although they do not have the terminology (yet) they
course to get students thinking about the characteristics
usual y can see what is wrong.
of ‘good research’. The beauty of the exercise is that Practical use
Paired class activity or individual homework Additional notes
You can, of course, then give them the terms to link to their intuitive understanding. Answers Some suggested issues
Ethical issues, e.g. lack of parental consent, lack of
consent from the headteacher, confidentiality of data
(exam grades being used for research purposes).
Extraneous variables not accounted for – the teacher
didn’t ask what the computer is being used for! Nor
did she get corroborative evidence, e.g. from the parents.
Sampling – the school is probably not representative
and as such the results cannot be generalised to other
schools and pupils. Her sampling was not random
(choosing a few naughty ones).
Dependent variable – are exam grades the best measure?
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
166–167 Experimental Method
Hypotheses: Directional or non-directional? 6 handout number .2 Activity type Consolidation
A straightforward task identifying whether general
The handout covers both experimental and correlational
hypotheses are directional or non-directional. The hypotheses.
handout summarises the difference between the two
There is an extension task concerning what determines
and offers a precautionary warning against jumping to
what type of hypothesis is used.
conclusions based on expectation. Practical use Individual: homework Additional notes
When discussing the reason for directional/non-
hypotheses you would use for various theories (capacity
directional it may be useful to go back to the topic
of STM, chunking, interference theory of forgetting, etc.).
of memory as a revision exercise and discuss what Answers
ND=non-directional, D=directional
1 = ND, 2 = D, 3 = ND, 4 = D, 5 = D, 6 = D, 7 = D, 8 = ND, 9 = ND, 10 = ND.
Whether a directional or non-directional hypothesis
When there is little or no research or the findings
is chosen depends on knowledge from previous
are ambiguous, it is best to use a non-directional
research. If the findings of previous research suggest hypothesis.
the direction of the findings use directional hypothesis.
IV and DV Identification 6 handout number .3 Activity type Consolidation
This is an exercise on identifying the IV and DV. You
There is an additional exercise to reinforce the previous
should emphasise to students the need to be precise.
topic – deciding if the hypotheses are directional or non- directional. Practical use
Individual – homework or classwork. If done in class, could be assessment. Additional notes
This is a good time to ensure that students learn how to spel independEnt and dependEnt! Answers
ND=non-directional, D=directional
5. IV = sex (man or woman), DV = speed of driving. D
1. IV = auditory or visual stimulus,
6. IV = amount of sleep, DV = amount of learning in DV = reaction time. ND ten-year-old boys. ND
2. IV = presence or absence of drug A,
7. IV = whether babies are under or over 9 months DV = amount remembered. ND
old, DV = whether or not searching occurs. D
3. IV = red or blue rag (not just colour),
8. IV = social class, DV = I.Q. score. ND
DV = number of charges made by the bul . D
9. IV = whether items are chunked or unconnected,
4. IV = position in family, first or subsequent,
DV = number of items remembered. D
DV = age at which first words spoken. D
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
166–167 Experimental method
10. IV = time of day, DV = (level of) alertness. ND
12. IV = whether or not rats are handled.,
11. IV = whether conditions are noisy or quiet,
DV = time taken to learn the maze. D DV = number of words learnt. D
Operationalisation of variables 6 handout number .4 Activity type Consolidation
This is an exercise on operationalising variables as wel as writing both directional and non-directional hypotheses. Practical use
Individual, classwork or homework Additional notes
It may be useful and time saving on marking for students
could discuss the appropriateness of various ways of
to swap papers and mark each other’s answers. They
operationalising the different variables. Answers
Obviously there are many ways of operationalising
3. To see if the age of the child affects how much
variables and as long as they are a means of precisely
rough and tumble play they engage in.
measuring the variables that is acceptable.
▪ Age – 3–5 years and 10–11 years (any suitable Examples time span).
1. To see if the amount of work students do is
▪ Rough and tumble play – quantity of play affected by when they do it:
involving physical contact accompanied by
smiling or laughing (observations made using
▪ Amount of work – score on a test or a set of questions.
behavioural categories and counted).
4. To see whether spending time on social media
▪ Time – any two time slots such as 9–10 a.m. 8–9 p.m.
affects people’s sociability.
2. To see if the amount of stress people are under
▪ Time on social media – average daily or weekly affects their health. time spent on it.
▪ Sociability – the average amount of time per day
▪ Scores on a stress questionnaire such as the life events scale.
(or weekly) spent with friends.
5. To see whether an audience affects how hard a bee
▪ Health – number of days off sick (if working);
scores on a health questionnaire. wil work.
▪ Audience – put the bee in a see-through hive
with or without other bees on the outside.
Work – the amount of honeycomb they build;
the amount of time spent cleaning the hive; the
amount of honey they take to the queen. Extension activity
Internal validity is defined as the extent to which what
may think of various measures of memory in which lists
is measured reflects what a study aims to measure. For
of words are recal ed – how valid is this as a measure
example, a measure of intel igence which measures the
of everyday memory? They could use examples from
head circumference is obviously not a valid measure (a
memory experiments they have studied.
ridiculous example serves to make the point). Students
N.B. validity is on A level but not AS specification.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
168–169 Control of variables
Demand characteristics and investigator effects 6 handout number .5 Activity type Consolidation
This is an exercise in which students first suggest cues
suggest ways in which they may be affected by demand
that may result in demand characteristics and are
characteristics and investigator effects.
then given four investigations in which they have to Practical use
Individual: homework or classwork Additional notes
Demand characteristics are ones that students often find difficult so it wel worth
spending some time on ensuring that they are able to utilise the term effectively. Answers
Possible cues resulting in demand characteristics:
Investigator effects: the investigator may expect boys
and girls to behave differently with respect to co-
▪ The actual communication during the study: the
instructions and any implicit clues from non-verbal
operation (e.g., that girls wil be more co-operative communication.
than boys) and this may affect what behaviour is
interpreted as co-operative and what is not. How do
▪ What the participant may already have heard about
you measure co-operation, is it standardised?
the study (for example, from other participants).
8. Researchers are investigating whether students
▪ The way the participant is approached initial y and
work more diligently in a maths lesson than in asked to volunteer.
a general studies lesson. They give very similar
worksheets (to do with everyday finance) to the
▪ The type of person that the researcher is: whether,
for example, he or she is formal or relaxed and so
same students in each of these two lessons. on.
Demand characteristics: the students may work out
the purpose of the study because they have a similar ▪ The setting of the study.
exercise given by the same researchers in two different
There aren’t any ‘right’ answers to these, the fol owing
lessons. This may influence their behaviour – they are suggestions.
may, for example, work harder in the maths lesson
because they feel they should when being observed.
6. A group of students is interviewed about their
belief in superstitions. The aim of the study is
Investigator effects: the investigators may
to see if there is a difference between males
unconsciously communicate that they expect students
and females in the degree to which they are
in one lesson to work harder than in the other and superstitious.
this could, in turn, affect how hard they actual y work
regardless of the type of lesson.
Demand characteristics: whether students recognise
that the questionnaire is concerned with superstitious
9. A researcher observes the amount of eye-contact
behaviour and change their answers to suit the
between two people who have been requested
impression they would like to give, that either they are
to have a staged argument as compared to the
or are not superstitious regardless of the truth!
amount of eye-contact between two people asked
to have an ordinary conversation.
Investigator effects: the way the interview is
conducted, are men and women interviewed
Demand characteristics: the fact that the participants
differently by tone of voice, etc., and would this
have been requested to have an argument is bound to influence their response?
reveal some aspects of the purpose of the study.
7. Teenagers in a youth club are observed to see if
Investigator effects: again, expectation as to
girls are more co-operative than boys.
results since eye-contact is difficult to measure accurately.
Demand characteristics: if observation is not discreet,
the participants may behave in such a way as to give a
certain impression. Their behaviour wil be affected by being watched.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
168–169 Control of variables Let’s revise Activity type Idea
The section on confounding and extraneous variables is a Ch 2,
good excuse to get the students to revise studies they’ve Jacobs (1887) pg 46 already done. Baddeley (1966) pg 46
You or they could choose a certain number of studies Burke and Skrul (1988) pg 54
and they could go through them and think about the
Godden & Baddeley (1975) pg 57
confounding and extraneous variables that would need
to be control ed/considered. In each case students Loftus and Palmer (1974) pg 58
should provide a justification for whether the variables
Johnson & Scott (1976) pg 60
might be extraneous/confounding. Ch 3
Suitable studies are those presented in a reasonable Harlow (1958) pg 78 amount of detail, for example: Ainsworth (1969) pg 84 Ch 1:
Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) pg 86 Asch (1952) pg 17, 18 Bowlby (1944) pg 88 Milgram (1963) Pg 22
Rutter et al (2011) pg 90 Practical use
This would make a good smal group exercise but could be individual homework if preferred. Additional notes
This could be done later if you wish to incorporate participant
design (and the confounding variables that might arise from that). Answers Some examples:
Asch – the personality of the participant rather than
Burke and Skrul (1988) – interference (investigated
the situation may affect conformity. The room in which using advertisements). Some brand names might be
the study is held could affect how easy it is to see the
easier to recal than others simply because of their display board.
name (e.g. they might be ‘catchy’). This, rather than
Milgram – the age of the participant might affect
interference, may affect how wel they are recal ed.
how they are treated or may in itself affect obedience
Bowlby (1944) – affectionless psychopathy may have (rather than the situation).
been caused by disturbance in the family rather than
Jacobs (1887) digit span – the textbook specifical y separation.
mentions inadequate control as a limitation and
Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) – subculture
gives an example (some participants may have been
might act as a confounding (alternative) variable, i.e.
distracted while being tested so they didn’t perform as the fact that people didn’t just come from a particular wel as they might).
country but may have been urban or rural.
Baddeley – participant reactivity can be a significant
extraneous variable and if the participants work out
the purpose of the study (hardly difficult in this case!),
this can introduce demand characteristics which are difficult to control.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
170–171 Experimental design Plan a study (or two) Activity type Consolidation
We find that the best way of teaching experimental
In your study, include the fol owing:
design and related issues (counterbalancing, etc.) is by
getting the students to design a variety of studies in
▪ What essential apparatus/materials are required.
smal groups and then discuss them as a class. The ones
▪ How many groups/ conditions wil be used.
I would suggest are as given below – chosen to give a
▪ What controls are necessary.
variety of designs and different counterbalancing needs.
▪ How the findings wil be measured.
Design an experimental study to test the hypothesis that:
Put students in groups and put the hypotheses and
1. People learn more quickly in a quiet environment than
further instructions on the board. in a noisy one.
Then, and this is important, assign each group a specific
2. The more times you meet someone, the more
order in which to do the designs, an order which should positively you wil rate them.
vary between groups (group A does 1 2 3 4 5, group B
3. Alcohol causes an increase in reaction time.
does 2 3 4 5 1 and so on). This ensures that each study is
the first one to be designed by at least one group. They
4. People remember items better if they are presented
make notes on how they would do the study and then
as a picture than if they are presented as words. there is a discussion.
5. Children younger than 9 months of age wil not try to
Starting with group A, ask them what they did on that
find a hidden toy but children above this age wil .
study. Write it on the board in diagrammatic form.
Briefly compare it to other groups then introduce the
concepts – repeated measures, etc. The hypotheses
have been designed to be discussed in the order
above (for example, in the first one, some groups
wil use a repeated measures design, others wil use
an independent groups design and the advantages/
disadvantages can be discussed). Practical use
Group exercise – give them 30 minutes to do the designing then at least
the rest of the lesson (assuming an hour) and part of another to discuss it. Additional notes
Number 1 is quite straightforward and al ows designs,
Number 2 they find a little difficult but it is useful as a
order effects and counterbalancing to be introduced.
way of mentioning when an independent groups design
Usual y both repeated measures and independent groups
is advisable (as opposed to number 5 in which it’s
are used by different groups and you can discuss the virtual y essential).
advantages/disadvantages of both. If only one design is
Obviously the exercise also emphasises operationalisation
used by al groups, then you can introduce the other and
of variables and various other concepts that have already
ask them why they didn’t use it. The emphasis is always been taught.
on reassurance – that although you are introducing a lot
of new terms, the design is common sense (as are the problems).
Which experimental design? 6 handout number .6 Activity type Consolidation
This is an exercise in which students have to decide which experimental
design to use – repeated measures, independent groups or matched pairs. Practical use
Individual: class exercise. It’s useful to do it in class so answers can be discussed.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
170–171 Experimental design Additional notes
This task can easily be expanded. Students can work out
studies together with problems of confounding variables.
how best to carry out the studies. In cases where there
There can also be discussion of how groups should be
is a choice of design and they disagree then a discussion
matched if the design is independent groups (e.g. for
can ensue. The advantages and disadvantages of each
number 1 the rats should be the same age).
design can be considered within the context of the Answers 1. Independent groups. 2. Matched pairs
3. Repeated measures (comparing children before
and after watching violent TV. Even better,
comparing them when they have watched an
exciting non-violent programme with when thay
have watched a violent programme).
4. Repeated measures but could be independent
groups – a chance to discuss which is better.
Participant variables are such that independent
groups could be a problem. (Matched pairs is
not entirely ruled out but could be impractical
as you would need to match participants on the
tendency to take risks and this would have several
practical problems associated with it, such as how
to measure this tendency ahead of the study and
the large ‘pool’ of participants you would require in
order to obtain matched pairs from it.)
5. Independent groups or matched pairs. 6. Repeated measures.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
172–173 Types of experiment Words R Us 6 handout number .7 Activity type Consolidation
This is a handout concerning a natural experiment. It
as a field experiment thus emphasising the practical
requires students to think about the limitations of such
differences between these two types of experiments.
a method as far as any cause/effect conclusions which
can be drawn. It also asks students to redesign this study Practical use Individual: homework. Additional notes
Students may confuse natural experiments with natural settings so it is
worth revisiting this wherever viable during the course. Answers
1. Write out a suitable hypothesis for this study. (2)
The alternative is to use random assignment to the
There wil be a difference in the improvement of two groups.
reading age between those using Readwell and
The same teacher should teach both groups and
those using Let’s Read.
should have no predetermined ideas about which
2. The study described above is a natural experiment.
scheme is better (preferably he/she should not
What is a natural experiment and why would this
have used either scheme before).
study be described in this way? (2)
Several other controls could be mentioned: for
A natural experiment is one in which the
example, both groups should get exactly the same
independent variable is not arranged by the
amount of teaching, parents from both groups
psychologist (researcher) but would have varied
should be given the same encouragement to help.
anyway. In this case, the new reading scheme is
5. Why would this make any conclusions from the
being introduced to the school and the psychologist results more valid? (2)
takes advantage of this in order to study its effect.
Any conclusions would be more valid because, by
3. The study found that the Readwel group did
deliberate manipulation of the IV (the two reading
better. Despite this, suggest three reasons why you
schemes) and matching of the groups you have
could not necessarily conclude that Readwell was
controlled extraneous and confounding variables
more effective than Let’s Read. (6)
better than in the natural experiment. You can
In general, there are many influences on the
therefore be more confident about cause and effect
children’s reading ability other than the reading
(that differences in the improvement of children’s
schemes. For example, there may be differences in
reading abilities are genuinely due to the different
the children’s ability which would counteract any
reading schemes rather than to other uncontrol ed
effects from the reading schemes. The teachers
variables such as the teacher or the ability of the
might be responsible for the children’s ability rather children).
than the reading scheme. Children in one group
6. Explain why this new experiment might be classed
might be more encouraged by parents than those as a field experiment. (2)
in the other one and again counteract any effects of the reading schemes.
It would be classed as a field experiment because
the dependent variable is being measured in
4. If a psychologist had the ful co-operation of
the children’s own natural environment but the
the teaching staff, how could she or he design
independent variable is manipulated by the
a true experiment (rather than making use of a
researcher. In a lab experiment the DV would be
natural y varying independent variable) to test the
assessed in the researcher’s own lab and general y
effectiveness of the new reading scheme? (3)
conditions would have been much more controlled.
The children would need to be careful y matched
on current reading ability (and possibly IQ) and one
member of each pair assigned to each group so
that the groups were more or less equivalent.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods
172–173 Types of experiment Types of experiments 6 handout number .8 Activity type Evaluation
A table for students to complete defining each type of
on memory that meets the criteria of each of the
experiment and giving the strengths and weaknesses types.
of each. They have to briefly describe an experiment Practical use Individual: homework. Additional notes
It is useful for the students to see the patterns of
strengths and weaknesses and begin to understand that
the process of designing research is a constant battle to
optimise the strengths and weaknesses of the methods. ▪
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods 174–175 Sampling Sampling synopsis 6 handout number .9 Activity type Consolidation
This handout is in three parts. The main task is to
The handout is plain awaiting their colourful il ustrations!
complete a table of the main five sampling methods
Students then devise their own mnemonic for recal ing
including a definition (presented as three key points –
these methods and answer questions on target
this matches the common exam requirement to provide populations.
a 3-mark answer) and a picture to il ustrate the method. Practical use Individual: homework Additional notes
Encourages students to consolidate this material and also reflect on how they wil learn it. Answers a) Tory voters
d) South African Whites
b) people with a spider phobia e) blind people.
c) separated infant monkeys Choosing a sample 6 handout number .10 Activity type Consolidation
This worksheet covers various aspects of sampling by
looks at disadvantages of certain methods and includes
requiring students to choose samples for some studies. It some maths. Practical use
Individual task for class or homework Additional notes Maths content: Percentages and proportions Answers
1. a) How would she select a random sample from
c) For this investigation, which method of sampling the workforce? (2) would be better and why? (2)
Place al the names of the workers into a computer
A stratified sample is probably better than a
database and use a computer program to select 50
random sample in this instance because you are
at random (or place al names in a hat and pick out
dealing with smal numbers and are therefore at 50).
risk of some groups not being represented at al
b) How would she select a stratified sample? Be
with random sampling. For example, you may wel precise! (4)
not get any management representation from a random sample.
30 shop-floor workers, 5 supervisors, 10 office
staff, 3 buyers, 2 management staff. Students
d) Why are volunteer samples unlikely to be
should then say how these numbers are to be representative? (2)
selected, e.g. randomly within each subset.
Because volunteers are not representative of the
general population. They are likely to be helpful,
keen and curious therefore results obtained from
such a group cannot necessarily be generalised to the population as a whole.
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods 174–175 Sampling
2. Think of at least three ways in which the sample so 125/2500 = 0.05 = 5%,
obtained is likely to be biased. (3).
b) How would he draw a systematic sample of the
There is likely to be bias in terms of: target population? (2)
• Gender: magazines are aimed at one sex.
Get al the school registers and take every 20th
• Age: readers are usual y in their twenties,
student from the first to the last register (20 x 125 maybe thirties.
= 2500 therefore you take every 20th student).
• Socio-economic class: certain magazines appeal
c) How would he obtain a random sample of the
to certain demographic groups and you have students? (2)
to be able to afford them but not feel they are
Give every student a number and use a random intel ectual y beneath you!
number generator to select 125. Using a hat is rather
3. a) What percentage of the target population is the
impractical but credit-worthy as long as described
sample? Show your working. (3) properly (pul 125 names out). Give us a clue 6 handout number .11 Activity type Quiz
This is a quiz covering the topics so far studied in this
of variables, sampling, experimental design.
chapter: aim, hypothesis, IV and DV, operationalisation Practical use
Individual assessment in class Additional notes
Give students the answers and get them to mark each
is worthy of ful marks. They might also consider whether
other’s. Most of it is straightforward but they wil benefit
it should be non-directional or directional.
by thinking about whether a fel ow student’s hypothesis Answers
1. How many participants took part in the study? (1)
d) Suggest another sampling method the students 40
could use and explain how it would be done. (3)
2. a) What type of sampling was used? (1)
E.g. volunteer sampling: the students ask for
volunteers to take part in the study by displaying Opportunity sampling
a notice on the school noticeboard. E.g.random
b) Suggest one disadvantage of this sampling
sampling in which the students choose a target method. (2)
population, such as the whole school, and select a
number of participants by drawing names from a
It is unlikely to be representative of the target hat.
population because it is drawn from one group of
students who are al similar in terms of age, socio-
3. What is the aim of the study? (1)
economic class and educational attainment so the
To investigate whether cues help people
findings cannot necessarily be generalised to the remember. wider population.
4. Write a suitable hypothesis for the study. (2)
c) Suggest one advantage of this sampling method. (2)
Participants given a cue (in the form of the first
and last letters) wil remember more words than
This method is convenient. It saves the researcher participants not given a cue.
a good deal of time and effort finding participants
and thus is less costly than most other sampling
5. What is the IV and DV in this study? How were
methods. (In addition, with certain investigations, each operationalised? (6)
such as the one in this question, the bias in the
IV is whether or not cues were provided.
sample is unlikely to cause major problems.) The DV is amount of recal .
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015
Chapter 6: Research methods 174–175 Sampling
The IV was operationalised by providing
A disadvantage is that there may be order effects:
participants with the first and last letter of the
participants may experience boredom and/or word, or not.
fatigue, which could make the second condition
The DV was operationalised by counting the
artificial y poor or there could be a practice effect
number of words correctly recal ed.
which may make the second condition better.
6. a) What was the experimental design of the study?
c) Describe how the student experimenters could
have used a different experimental design for this Repeated measures study.
b) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of
They could use an independent groups design in
this type of experimental (participant) design.
which participants were divided into two groups
An advantage is that this method controls for
and only took part in one conditions of the IV, in
individual differences in the participants so you do
other words, one group memorised a list with clues
not get a situation in which one group has a better
and the other memorised the same list with no
memory than the other and that this, rather than clues.
the IV, causes differences in the two conditions.
7. Draw a histogram of the data from Condition B
with an appropriate heading and labels. (4)
Histogram to show the frequency of scores in a
memory test: condition with no clues 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 frequency of score 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 number of words remembered
AQA Psychology Year 1 & AS Teacher Notes
Cara Flanagan, Jo Haycock, Diana Jackson-Dwyer ©Illuminate Publishing 2015