Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies môn English Studies| Trường Đại học Thăng Long

15:21, 09/01/2026
Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies - Studocu
1. What is contrastive linguistics
2 major linguistics schools that evolved in the 20th century were structural
linguistic and generative linguistics.
structural linguistics adopts a behavioristic approach towards language,
treating it as a product of the stimulus response mechanism of the human kind,
- hermeneutic approach lays emphasis on the individual characteristics
( phương pháp tiếp cận này nhấn mạnh sự tương tác và giao tiếp của con người)
-vestehen: denote the understanding of a subject of study from
within , by means of empathy, intuition, imagination… ( the
verstehend method is certainly not a method of verification and can
hardly be used as a scientific tool)
2. What is most widely followed in contemporary language studies community is
the scientific approach.
3. Contrastive linguistics is a kind of or a branch of linguistics. Contrastive
linguistics involves contrast or comparison,
comparison is one of the basic ways by which we study and get to know
things, only by comparison can one distinguish
comparison may be conducted intralingually or interlingually, on a synchronic
basis or on a diachronic basis (synchronic basis: đồng đại, so sánh ngôn
ngữ ở cùng một thời điểm. Diachronic basis: lịch đại, so sánh ngôn ngữ
theo chiều thời gian khác nhau)
4. Synchronic intralingual comparison: this is the comparison of the
constituent forms of the phonetic, phonological, lexical, grammatical and
other linguistic system within a particular language during a specific period of
its evolution. (so sánh nội ngôn ngữ trong cùng một thời điểm phát triển)
5. Diachronic intralingual comparison: is the principal method used by
reseachers of language history, etymology and other related branches of
linguistic study (so sách lịch đại nội ngôn ngữ)
6. Diachronic interlingual comparison: comparison is made across language
borders, also called (comparative) historical linguistics (also known as philology)
7. Có giả thuyết chp rằng tất cả các ngôn ngữ ấn âu đều xuất phát từ một tổ
tiên được gọi là “Proto-Indo-Eruopean)
8. There are 3 kinds of synchronic interlingual comparison
a, the 1st kind: finding out the common features of or common patterns
underlying the structures of all the lannguages of the world (tìm những điểm
chung của các ngôn ngữ khác nhau dưới góc độ cấu trúc)
b, the 2nd: finding out the typical differences between different languages in
their sructure so that these languages can be classified according to their
formal features. ( also called linguistic typology) ( tìm ra các điểm khác
nhau giữa những ngôn ngữ khác nhau dưới góc độ cấu trúc)
c, linguistic typology has established a classificatory system for the
languages around the world into which individual languages can be slotted
according to their preferred grammatical devices: synthetic (ngôn ngữ 15:21, 09/01/2026
Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies - Studocu
tổng hợp), analytic( ngôn ngữ phân tích), inflectional(ngôn ngữ biến
hình), agglutination (ngôn ngữ ghép mảnh), tone
9. Synthetic language: ngôn ngữ tổng hợp:
10.Analytic language: ngôn ngữ phân tích: hình thức từ không thay đổi mà
trật tự từ thay đổi. Ví dụ là tiếng trung và tiếng việt
11.Inflectional language: ngôn ngữ biến hình: ví dụ như tiếng anh: các
động từ biến hình để thể hiện chức năng ngữ pháp. Và biểu thị ý nghĩa câu
12.Tone language: is a language in which the meaning of a word depends on
the tone used when pronoucing it. E.g. chinese, vietnamese
13.Agglutiating language: is a language in which various afÏxes maybe attached to the stem of a word
14.The third kind of synchronic interlingual comparison: find out the
discrepancies and, to a lesser degree, the similarities in the structures of the
languages being compared. ( tìm những điểm khác biệt và tương đồng ở cấu
trúc của các ngôn ngữ được so sánh)
15.CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS: a branch of linguistics which studies two or
more languages synchronically, with the aim of discovering their differences
and similarities (especially the former) and applying these findings to related
areas of language study or practice. (ngôn ngữ học đối chiếu nghiên cứu các
ngôn ngữ khác nhau đồng đại để tìm ra các điểm giống và khác nhau của
các ngôn ngữ đó, từ đó áp dụng những nghiên cứu đó vào các lĩnh vực có liên quan)
16.Constrastive linguistics can be classified into 2 branches: micro-
contrastive linguistic and macro-contrastive linguistics
a, Micro-contrastive linguistics: is the classic, traditional mode of
constrastive linguistics, the aim is to compare the universal as well as
particular structural levels of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, lexis and
grammar. (ngôn ngữ học tương phản vi mô: phương thức cổ điển, truyền
thống của ngôn ngữ học cấu thành, mục đích là so sánh các cấp độ cấu trúc
phổ quát cũng như cụ thể của ngôn ngữ học như ngữ âm âm vị học, từ vựng, ngữ pháp)
b, Macro-constrastive linguistics: represent a breoader perspective of
linguistics analysis and offers considerable scope for new work in constrastive
linguistics, the aim is to compare and understand how ppl use different
languages to communicate with each other. It addresses problems on two
higher levels-the textual and the pragmatic levels of linguistic description.
(ngôn ngữ học tương phản vĩ mô: phản ánh ở mức độ cao hơn của ngôn ngữ,
so sánh và hiểu cách thức con người giao tiếp với nhau...ở mức độ văn bản và
thực dụng của ngôn ngữ)
17.THE THEORETICAL NEED FOR CONSTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS
b, the history and development of constrastive linguistics
- Constrastive linguistics originated in the United States during the second world war
- stimulus-response theory descrbes learning as the formation of associations
between stimuli and responses.
-stimulus is something which produces a change or reaction in an individual or organism. 15:21, 09/01/2026
Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies - Studocu
- response is the behavior which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus.
-reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and
affects the probability of that response occurring or not occurring again
(Củng cố (cường hóa) là một kích thích theo sau một phản ứng và ảnh hưởng
đến xác suất xảy ra lại của phản ứng đó.)
-positive reinforcement: reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response
-negative reinforcement: reinforcement which decreases the likelihood of a response
e.g. Anna làm bánh cho Minh: Nếu Minh tỏ ra hài lòng và khen ngợi bánh
của Anna, điều này có thể củng cố hành động của Anna, khiến cô ấy muốn
làm bánh cho Minh một lần nữa trong tương lai.
-Associationism: refers to learning which happens when a connection or
association is made, usually between 2 things
e.g. when someone hears the word ‘table’ they may think of the word ‘food’
-> this is the case of the association by congruity
e.g. when someone hears the word ‘delicate’, they may think of the word
‘fragile’ as they have the similar meaning
-> this is the case of association by similarity
e.g. when someone hears the word ‘happy’, they may think of the word ‘sad’,
as they has the opposite meaning
-> this is the case of association by contrast
- Innatism claims that human knowledge developes from structures,
processes, and ideas which are in the mind at birth (lí thuyết bẩm sinh cho
rằng các kiến thức của con người phát triển từ các cấu trúc, quy trình và ý
tưởng có sẵn trong tâm trí khi sinh ra (là bẩm sinh), thay vì từ môi trường bên ngoài)
- empiricism holds that all human knowledge comes from experience.
- interlingual error: is one which results from language tranfer
- intralingual error: is one which results from faulty or partial learning of
the target language rather than language transfer
e.g.learner may produce: ‘he is come’ instead of ‘he is coming’ or ‘he comes’
-Transfer is the psychological hypothesis that the learning of task a
will affect the subsequent learning of task b (chuyen di)
-Positive transfer: (is also known as facilitation) which helps or facilitates
language learning in another later situation (Ví dụ, một học sinh Trung Quốc
học tiếng Anh có thể không gặp vấn đề gì khi phát âm các cụm từ tiếng
Anh white bread và green tea, vì hai cụm từ này có cấu trúc từ vựng và ngữ
nghĩa tương tự như các cụm từ tiếng Trung tương ứng: 白面包 (bánh trắng)
và 绿茶 (trà xanh))
-Negative transfer: (also known as interference) is one that interferes
with language learning with another later language ( gây cản trở cho việc học ngôn ngữ)
-2 levels of analysis: theoretical/pure and applied constrastive linguistics
+ theoretical/pure constrastive linguistics: finds suitable models and
theoretical frameworks or comparison to establish such key notions as
congruence, similarity, equivalence ( phân tích đối chiếu lí thuyết liên quan 15:21, 09/01/2026
Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies - Studocu
đến việc tìm ra các khung lí thuyết để so sánh các ngôn ngữ khác nhau, tập
trung vào các khái niệm như sự tương đồng, khác biết và tương đương giữa các ngôn ngữ)
+ applied constrastive linguistics: has as its objective the application of
the findings of theoretical constrastive analysis to the constrasting of two or
more languages for certain purposes ( có mục tiêu áp dụng các phát hiện từ
phân tích lí thuyết vào việc đối chiếu hai hay nhiều ngôn ngữ cho những thực tiễn cụ thể
-> it can be seen that applied CA is unidirectional whereas theoretical CA is
bidirectional or multidirectional (phân tích đối chiếu áp dụng được cho là 1
chiều trong khi phân tích đối chiếu lí thuyết dc cho là đa chiều) -
Theoretical CA does not investigate how a given category present in
language A is represented in language B -
Applied CA is concerned with the problem of how a univesal category X,
relized in language A as X9a0, is rendered in language B as X(b) -
SURFACE STRUCTURE: is the syntactic structure of the sentence which a
person speaks, hears, reads ow writes
-DEEP STRUCTURE: more abstract, considered to be there in the speaker’s mind
Another reason that we need the notion of deep structure is that it helps to
sismplify the statement of syntactic rules (Một lý do khác khiến chúng ta cần
khái niệm về cấu trúc sâu là nó giúp đơn giản hóa việc trình bày các quy tắc ngữ pháp)
-Extraposition: di chuyển chủ ngữ tạo ra một cấu trúc khác nhưng vẫn
giữ nghĩa tương đương
e.g. a, For Mary to sing the song was hard
b, The song was hard for Mary to sing
c, Mary was hard to sing the song
d, It was hard for Mary to sing the song
-> a, is regarded as the kernel of the 4 sentences (câu a còn được coi là câu
gốc vì từ đó có thể biến đổi để phát sinh ra 3 câu còn lại). By applying
OBJECT RAISING transformation we derive in b, SUBJECT RAISING
transformation in c, applying EXTRAPOSITION transformation in d
- deep structure of the sentence is a representation which incorporates all
information relevant to the single interpretation of a particular sentence.
-TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE: is synonymous with sameness of meaning
e.g. Didn’t yoou go to school yesterday?
english: ‘yes’ if you didn’t and no if you did
chinese/vietnamese: yes if you did and no if you didn’t
-In linguistics communication there ‘re at least 5 essential elements involved:
topic (the messsage transmitted), code (the system of symbols with which
the message is processed and sent out), the sender, reciever, chanel of contact
-The ideational meaning or referential meaning is related to the conceptual or
cognitive aspect of the topic of communication 15:21, 09/01/2026
Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies - Studocu
-The textual meaning or intrallingual meaning (ý nghĩa nội ngôn ngữ)
determines what information it contributes to the message: how it helps
maintain cohesion and coherenc..
-The interpersonal (sự giao tiếp giữa các cá nhân) meaning or pragmatic
meanging (nghĩa thực) determines what kind of speech art it performs for its
user: to praise, codemn, refuse or so on…..
-CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS: involves 2 steps:
+stage of description when each of the 2 languages is descried on an appropriate level
+ stage of juxtaposition (đặt cạnh nhau) for comparison
PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL CONSTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
- Type: is a class of linguistics items
-Token: is an example or a physical manifestation of a class
e.g ‘hello’, ‘hi’ are different tokens pf the text or discours type ‘greeting’
-Phonetics: studies human speech sounds in general, studies how ppl
physically produce and percieve different sounds to create speech
-Phonology: studies the specific speech sounds as employed in different
languages, studies how speech sounds are structured and combined to create
meaning in words, phrases and sentences.
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PITCH -
Pitch refers to the relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener.
Theree’re 2 elements of pitch: tone and intonation -
Tone refers to the height of the pitch and a unit of change of pitch which is
associated with the pronunciation of syllables or words and which affects the
meaning of the word. -
Intonation: (pitch movement) refers to the change of pitch to convey
grammatical or attitudinal information rather than vocabularies differences. - LEXICAL CONSTRASTIVE ANALYSIS -
Lexicology is the study of the lexical items or vocabularies of a language -
A lexical item (đơn thể từ vựng) is also callled lexeme. It is the smallest
meaningful unit that is an item in the vocabulary of a language - A lexeme is an abstract unit -
All the lexemes in a language considered as a collection is known as the
language’s lexicon or vocabulary (lexicon là vốn từ vựng của 1 người) 15:21, 09/01/2026
Contrastive Linguistics: Key Concepts and Approaches in 20th Century Studies - Studocu