Critical Thinking Chapter 2

lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 CHAPTER 2 Recognizing Arguments lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
Argument : some kind of quarrel or shouting match??? lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Fact and Opinion
Fact = Can be proved or disproved
Opinion = Personal Belief lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Fact
 Tell who, what, when, where, or how "A fact is a thing much. that is occurred, to
 Have a verifiable truth value. exist, or to be true."
 Can be quantified and is specific.
 Are supported by evidence. Opinion Tend to be vague. 
An opinion is a view about a particular
Are personal beliefs issue. 4 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 or value judgments.
It is what the person believes or thinks, and
is not necessarily the truth. Fact Opinion
Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam Hanoi is the best city in the world.
IU is a University in Vietnam. I love studying at IU. 5 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Identifying Statements
 A statement is a sentence that can be viewed as either true or false.
 Put otherwise, a statement is a sentence that makes
good grammatical sense when it is prefaced with the 6 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
words "It is true that…" or "It is false that…“. What is a statement?  Examples:
 Red is a color. (physical statement)
 Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement)
 The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)  Non-Examples:
 What time is it? (question)
 Close the window! (command)
 Oh, my goodness! (exclamation) 7 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
 Statement test: Does it make sense to put “it is true that”
or “it is false that” in front of it? If so, it is a statement. If not, it’s not. Identifying Statements
Here are some examples of statements:
Paris is the capital of France.
The South won the American Civil War.
Ford makes better trucks than Chevy.
Same-sex marriage should be legalized. 8 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
Each of these sentences is a statement, because each
makes an assertion that is either true or false. Identifying Statements
Not all sentences are statements, i.e., sentences that assert
that something is true or false.
Here are some examples of sentences that are not statements:
How was your summer? (question) Pick up your room! (command) Hi! (greeting)
Let's go to the ball game tonight. (proposal) 9 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
None of these are statements, because none can sensibly be
preceded by the phrases "It is true that…" or "It is false that…" Identifying Statements
A statement can be expressed by a phrase or a dependent clause
rather than as a complete sentence.
Example: Considering Ian's near-perfect SAT scores, he
should be able to get into an Ivy League college.
In this sentence, the phrase "considering Ian's near-perfect SAT
scores" is a dependent clause that is not capable of standing alone as
a complete sentence. Nevertheless, the intent of the speaker or writer
is clearly to defend one claim ("Ian should be able to get into an Ivy 10 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
League college") on the basis of another ("Ian made nearly perfect
SAT scores"). For critical thinking purposes, therefore, it's important
to recognize that there are two statements in this passage, rather than one. Identifying Statements Rhetorical
questions should be regarded as statements.
Rhetorical questions are sentences that have the grammatical form of
questions but are meant to be understood as assertions.
Here are some examples of rhetorical questions:
Alyssa, you should quit smoking. Don’t you realize how bad that is for your health? 11 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
The point of such "questions" is not to ask for information, but to
make a positive assertion that the speaker or writer expects at least
some of his readers or listeners to agree with. For that reason,
rhetorical questions should be treated as statements rather than as questions. Identifying Statements Ought
imperatives should be regarded as statements.
Ought imperatives are sentences that have the grammatical form of
imperatives (i.e., commands) but are intended to be understood as “ought
statements,” i.e., statements that express a judgment about what ought to be done.
Here is an example of a passage that contains an ought imperative:
Do not read beauty magazine. They will only make you feel ugly. 12 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
“You shouldn’t read beauty magazine.” advice or value judgments Tricky statements
 Rhetorical question: a sentence that has the grammatical
form of a question but is meant to be understood as a statement.
 Don’t you know smoking will kil you?
• (means: Smoking will kill you.)
 How am I supposed to do that?
• (means: I can’t do that.)
 Ought imperative: a sentence that has the form of a
command but is a statement about what ought to be done. 13 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
 “Do X!” real y means “You should do X.”
 “Don’t blow dry your hair in the tub!” real y means “You should not
blow dry your hair in the tub.” 14 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
1. Capital punishment is wrong. Ans:Statement lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
2. Can vegetarians eat animal crackers? (George Carlin) Ans: Nonstatement (question) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
3. Ted Williams is the greatest hitter in baseball history. Ans:Statement lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
4. What do you say we stop at the next rest stop?
Ans :Nonstatement (suggestion) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
5. Abraham Lincoln was the first president of
the United States. Ans: Statement lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements. 6. Let’s party!
Ans: Nonstatement (suggestion or exhortation) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements. 7. Great! Ans :Statement lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
(This is a brief and emphatic way of saying, "This is great.") Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements. 8. Keep off the grass. (sign) Ans: Nonstatement lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 (command) Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
9. If Sally calls, tell her I’m at the library. Ans: Nonstatement lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 (order or request) Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
10. I hope Peter likes his new job. Ans: Statement (You might be lying.) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
11. Can’t you see that pornography demeans women? Ans: Statement (rhetorical question) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements. 12. Holy cow!
Ans: Nonstatement (exclamation) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.
13. Please print your name legibly. Ans: Nonstatement (request) Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
14. What will it profit a man, if he gains the
whole world and forfeits his life? (Matt. 16:26)
Ans: Statement (rhetorical question) Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
15. You want mayo on that, right? Ans: Nonstatement (question) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 30 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 31 Argument lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 What is an argument?
A Claim Defended with Reasons.
Argument - A form of thinking in which certain statements
(reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion).
Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a
conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons for
accepting another statement. A conclusion is a statement supported by reasons. 32 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Argument-Example
 Lawyers earn a lot of money. ( Premise )
 I want to earn a lot of money. ( Premise ) 
I should become a Lawyer. ( Conclusion ) 33 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 34 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Identifying arguments Assoc. Prof. Ho Thanh Phong 10 /14/20163 November 2008 35 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
Identifying Premises and Conclusions TIPS 
Look for premise indicators that provide clues when premises are being offered.
Examples: because, since, for, given that, as, judging from, and
seeing that. 
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when
conclusions are being offered.
Examples: therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result, accordingly,
consequently, and which shows that. 36 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
Identifying Premises and Conclusions TIPS 
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two strategies:
 Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or
speaker trying to prove?" That claim will be the conclusion.
 Try putting the word "therefore" before each of
the statements in turn. The statement it fits best will be the conclusion. 37 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
Identifying Premises and Conclusions 
1. No one under eighteen-years-old can vote. 
2. Jen is under eighteen-years-old. 
3. Therefore, Jen cannot vote.
Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a
conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons
for accepting another statement. A conclusion is a
statement supported by reasons.
In this example, statements 1 and 2 are premises, and
statement 3 is the conclusion. 38 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Example
Make a will. Otherwise, the state will determine who gets your stuff.
(Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced the Future?" 2001)
Identify the premise(s) and conclusion in this argument. 39 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Example
Premise: If you don't make a will, the state will determine who gets your stuff.
Conclusion: You ought to make a will.
The word otherwise often functions--as it does here--as
premise indicator. Notice that both the premise and the
conclusion have been rephrased slightly. The premise
has been rephrased in order to make it a complete
sentence. The conclusion has been restated in order to
make clear that it is intended as a statement rather than as a command. 40 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
What Is Not an Argument?
An argument is a claim defended with reasons. 41 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 
More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if: 
It is a group of two or more statements. 
One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed or
intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises).
What Is Not an Argument? 
Notice three important things that follow from this definition:
 Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that
it makes sense to regard as either true or false). Questions, 42 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
commands, and other kinds of non-statements cannot be
parts of arguments (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical
questions should be treated as statements.).
 No single statement is an argument. Arguments always
consist of at least two statements. 
Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or
intended that one statement follows from one or more
What Is Not an Argument?
other statements in the passage. In other words, a
passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer
intends to offer evidence or reasons why another
statement should be accepted as true.
 Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments are: 43 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Reports
A statement or group of statements intended simply to
convey information about a subject. Unsupported
Is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or statements of belief
writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no or opinions
reasons or evidence to back up that opinion. Illustrations
Is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate
or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true. Conditional
Is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such- Statements
andsuch is true if something else is true. Explanations
Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide
an account of why something has occurred or why something is the case. 44 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 What are not arguments
 Reports: statements made to convey information.
 “More people moved to the south this year.”
 “Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices.”
• Notice that, even though there is a conclusion indicator, this is still a report.
 Unsupported Assumptions: when someone puts forth
what they believe but does not intend for any of their
statements to support another.
 People aren’t afraid of dying; they are afraid of not living.
 People like this course because of the professor. 45
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
• Notice the presence of a premise indicator, but not a premise. What Is Not An Argument
Conditional (“if-then”) statements:
e.g.,: If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.
Most common forms: If A then B; B if A.
 Antecedent: usually, the part that directly follows “if.”
 Consequent: Usually, the part that follows “then” lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
But conditionals don’t always have “if” or “then”46
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education
e.g., In the event of rain, the picnic will be More On Conditional Statements
 Conditionals are not arguments, but they can look like them.
 Conditional: If I was taller I would play basketball.
 Argument: I am tall, so I would make a good basketball player.
 If Rhode Island was larger than Ohio, and Ohio was larger than
Texas, then Rhode Island would be larger than Texas.
 This is a conditional statement; “If the first two things are true, then the third is true.” 47
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
 If Bob is taller than Chris then Bob is taller than Ann. If Bob is taller
than Ann, then Bob is taller then Lori. Thus, if Bob is taller than
Chris then Bob is taller than Lori.
 This is an argument. The latter follows from the two former statements.
 Chain arguments: consist of conditional statements.
 If A then B. If B then C. Therefore, if A then C.
 e.g., If Allen moves I will be all alone. If I am all alone then I will be sad.
So if Allen moves I will be sad. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 What Is Not An Argument
 Illustrations: examples of a claim.
 Many wildflowers are edible. For example,
daises and day lilies are delicious in salads.
 Be careful. Some arguments can look like
illustrations because they use “counter examples.”
 Many people think that all Star Trek fans are
zit faced nerds. But that is not true. For lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
48example, Christian Slater is a Star Trek fan
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education and he is not a zit faced nerd. What Is Not An Argument
 Explanation: tries to show why something is the case (not argue that it is the case).
 Usually offers up a causal explanation for something that is already accepted as true.
• Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg. (explanation) •
Capital Punishment is wrong because it is murder. (argument) 50
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
 Explanandum: what is explained (the event).
 Explanans: the explanation (the cause).
“Explanadum” because “Explanans.”
 “I ski because I think it is fun.” (explanation)
 “You should ski because it is fun.” (argument)
Arguments vs. Explanation (how to tell the difference)  The Common-Knowledge Test
 If it points at something that is common knowledge, it is probably an explanation.
• Most people don’t present arguments for things people already believe. 51
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
Example: “TV is very influential in society because most people watch it.”  The Past-Event Test
 If it points at a past event, it is probably an explanation.
 Usually people don’t argue “X occurred.”
Example: “The US entered WWII because of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor.” Arguments vs. Explanation (how to tell the difference)
 The Author’s Intent Test: Ask if the person making the
statement is trying to “prove” something or explain why something is true. 52
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
 You want a college degree because you want a better life.
 The Principle of Charity Test:
 The Principle of Charity: interpret generously (give the author of
the statement a break). If what he said would be a bad
argument, but it could be interpreted as an example (or
explanation) assume it is not an argument.
 The Test: If you have a choice between interpreting a statement
as a “bad argument” or an “unsatisfactory explanation,” do
the latter. A bad argument is a worse mistake. 53
Lecture Notes © 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Examples
http://vnn.vietnamnet.vn/chinhtri/201006/Cac-
nuoc-co-IQ-cao-deu-lam-duong-sat-cao- toc914859/ lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Summary 1. Distinguishin
& Conclusions
g Fact & Opinion 2. What is an Argument? 3. Identifying Premises lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 4. What Is Not
ed or disproved Opinion = Personal Belief an Argument?
An argument is a claim defended with reasons. 53 F
Look for premise indicators that provide clues when a
premises are being offered (e.g. because, since, for). c
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when t
conclusions are being offered (e.g. therefore, thus, hence, so). =
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two C
strategies: 1) Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker a
trying to prove?" That claim will be the conclusion. 2)Try putting n
the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The b
statement it fits best will be the conclusion. e p r
Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with
arguments are: Reports, Unsupported statements of belief or o
opinions, Illustrations, Conditional Statements, and v Explanations lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Any Questions? lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 54 lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
1. When the universe has crushed him man will still be
nobler than that which kills him, because he knows that
he is dying, and of its victory the universe knows nothing.
(Blaise Pascal, Pensées) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2 II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
 Premise 1: Man knows that he is dying.
 Premise 2: Of its victory the universe knows nothing.
 Conclusion: When the universe has crushed him man
will still be nobler than that which kills him. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
2. Rights are either God-given or evolve out of the
democratic process. Most rights are based on the ability
of people to agree on a social contract, the ability to make
and keep agreements. Animals cannot possibly reach
such an agreement with other creatures. They cannot
respect anyone else’s rights. Therefore they cannot be said to have rights.
(Rush Limbaugh, The Way Things Ought to Be) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
 Premise 1: Rights are either God-given or evolve out of the democratic process.
 Premise 2: Most rights are based on the ability of people to agree
on a social contract, the ability to make and keep agreements.
 Premise 3: Animals cannot possibly reach such an agreement with other creatures.
 Premise 4: Animals cannot respect anyone else's rights.
 Conclusion: Animals cannot be said to have rights. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
3. You’d better shape up, ’cuz I need a
man, and my heart is set on you. (Olivia Newton-John, Grease) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
 Premise 1: I need a man.
 Premise 2: My heart is set on you.
 Conclusion: You’d better shape up. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
4. Since moral responsibility presupposes free-will, since this
freedom is not compatible with universal causal
determinism, and since universal causal determinism
appears to be the case, it seems evident that—contrary to
what most people believe—human beings are not morally responsible.
(stated but not endorsed in William H. Halverson, A Concise
Introduction to Philosophy, 4th ed. [adapted]) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
 Premise 1: Moral responsibility presupposes free-will.
 Premise 2: This freedom is not compatible with universal causal determinism.
 Premise 3: Universal causal determinism appears to be the case.
 Conclusion: Contrary to what most people believe, human
beings are not morally responsible. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
 5. Our faith comes in moments; our vice is habitual. Yet
there is a depth in those brief moments which
constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all
other experiences. For this reason the argument which
is always forthcoming to silence those who conceive
extraordinary hopes of man, namely the appeal to
experience, is forever invalid and vain.
 (Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The Over-Soul”) lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.
 Premise 1: Our faith comes in moments.
 Premise 2: Our vice is habitual.
 Premise 3: There is a depth in those brief moments which
constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all other experiences.
 Conclusion: The argument which is always forthcoming to
silence those who conceive extraordinary hopes of man,
namely the appeal to experience, is forever invalid and vain. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not. 
1. I ate because I was hungry.
2. He must be home. His car’s in the driveway.
3. I’m trading in my Ford Explorer for a Toyota
Corolla because they’re more reliable and get better gas mileage. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
4. If Christmas is on a Friday, the day after Christmas must be a Saturday. 
5. Dinosaurs became extinct sixty-five million
years ago, probably as a result of dramatic global
cooling that resulted from the impact of a large asteroid.
6. Dogs make better pets than cats because
they’re more intelligent and obedient. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
7. According to baseball statistician Bill James,
Stan Musial was a better allaround baseball
player than Ted Williams because Musial was,
in addition to being a great hitter, a better
fielder and baserunner than Williams was.
8. The rich and famous tend not to be happy,
welladjusted personalities. Look at Britney Spears. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
9. I stayed home from school because I was sick.
10. The Cascades mountain range contains many
majestic peaks. Mt. Rainier and Mt. Hood, for
instance, are both more than ten thousand feet. lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
11. The death penalty costs too much. Allowing
our government to kill citizens compromises the
deepest moral values upon which this country was
conceived: the inviolable dignity of human persons.
(Helen Prejean, CSJ, Dead Man Walking)
12. If there were no maldistribution, if everyone
shared equally, and if no grain were fed to animals, lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69
all of humanity could be adequately nourished today.
(Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich, Betrayal of Science and Reason) EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
13. The British statesman William Gladstone thought that we would all be
healthier if we chewed each bite of food precisely
32 times. Why else, he argued, did nature endow us with exactly 32 teeth? lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 (Thomas Gilovich, How
We Know What Isn’t So) EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
14. Guys are extremely reluctant to make
commitments, or even to take any steps that might
lead to commitments. That is why, when a guy
goes out on a date with a woman and finds himself
really liking her, he often will demonstrate his
affection by avoiding her for the rest of his life.
(Dave Barry, Dave Barry’s Complete Guide to lOMoARcPSD|359 747 69 Guys) EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain arguments and which do not.
15. You can fool all of the people some of the time,
and some of the people all the time, but you cannot
fool all the people all the time. (Abraham Lincoln)
Document Outline

• Tricky statements
  • Exercise 2.1
  • Exercise 2.1 (1)
  • Exercise 2.1 (2)
    • Exercise 2.1
    • Exercise 2.1 (1)
    • Exercise 2.1 (2)
    • Exercise 2.1 (3)
    • Exercise 2.1 (4)
    • Exercise 2.1 (5)
    • Exercise 2.1 (6)
    • Exercise 2.1 (7)
    • Exercise 2.1 (8)
    • Exercise 2.1 (9)
    • Exercise 2.1 (10)
    • Exercise 2.1 (11)
• Identifying arguments
• What are not arguments
• What Is Not An Argument
• More On Conditional Statements
• What Is Not An Argument (1)
• What Is Not An Argument (2)
  • EXERCISE 2.2
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (1)
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (2)
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (3)
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (4)
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (5)
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (6)
    • EXERCISE 2.2
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (7)
  • EXERCISE 2.2 (8)
  • EXERCISE 2.4
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (1)
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (2)
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (3)
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (4)
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (5)
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (6)
  • EXERCISE 2.4 (7)