Uncertainty Avoidance through Xenophobia in South Africa | Giao tiếp liên văn hóa | Đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố HCM

Uncertainty Avoidance through Xenophobia in South Africa INTRODUCTION
Xenophobia, the fear or hatred of foreigners, is an alarming phenomenon that has
been prevalent in societies around the world. South Africa is no exception, as it has
experienced numerous incidents of xenophobic violence and discrimination against
foreign nationals. These incidents highlight the crucial need to examine the
underlying factors explaining why multiculturalism in the much-vaunted Rainbow
Nation has become so dangerously unstable. Many scholars consider globalization as
a primary driver where political economy perspectives and identity politics are two
main strands (Hobsbawm, 1992; Malkki, 1995; Appadurai, 1998, cited from Hickel,
2014). Although South Africa is a multicultural society which is such an ideal place
for cross-cultural study, the cultural aspect is still not focused much in explaining
xenophobia. According to Franke (2008), cultural values have significant effects on
overall ethical attitudes across countries. He indicated that increasing uncertainty
avoidance, which is a concept introduced by Geert Hofstede as part of his cultural
dimensions theory, has a negative influence on national ethical attitudes. Opening
the door to understanding the relationship between uncertainty avoidance and
xenophobia in South Africa, this study seeks to shed light on the impact of cultural
tendencies towards avoiding uncertainty on the prevalence of xenophobia. By
investigating the correlation between uncertainty avoidance and xenophobia in
South Africa, we can gain valuable insights into the cultural factors that shape
attitudes towards foreigners and contribute to social tensions within the country. Rationale of the Study
A deeper comprehension of our cultures would help us greatly to understand both
ourselves and the sister peoples of Africa- . It follows that a lack of understanding will
contribute to our incapacity to comprehend one another and ourselves, which will
ultimately result in conflict and hatred. A lack of knowledge implies that intercultural
communication is inefficient, because effective intercultural communication would lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
allow individuals of one culture to understand, accept, and respect members of
another culture while minimizing stress and a sense of threat. Enhancing mutual
understanding between individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds is the
ultimate aim of intercultural communication. This makes it easier to provide
individuals with enough knowledge to recognize and appreciate one another's
cultures, which assists in resolving conflicts when these events arise. When
intercultural communication fails or is unsuccessful, people are restricted to their
own experiences and "forced" to make assumptions about others and their
experiences, which may include incorrect and negative judgments.
It is possible to suggest that xenophobia, or fear of and hate for foreigners, is the
outcome of inadequate intercultural communication in which individuals of one
national culture do not understand, respect, or welcome members of another
national culture among them. There have been instances of xenophobia when
there has been negative opinion of immigrants due to their distinct cultural
backgrounds and values, which has led some individuals to view them as threats.
Tragically, xenophobia still exists in many African nations, most notably in
South Africa, Rwanda/Burundi, and the Ivory Coast. In fact, there are signs that
xenophobia is growing in South Africa, where it has killed numerous defenseless
migrants and asylum seekers simply because of being foreigners.
A number of scholars used Hofstede's studies on cultural dimensions to study the
behavior of people of different nations in order to predict how people from different
cultures interact with one another. This would be the key point to reduce the number of
people killed by xenophobic violence in South Africa by offering foreigners the way to
mitigate the cultural differences while living in this nation. In this research, our group
would like to provide readers with a deep understanding of the term “xenophobia”, the
reason why foreigners or immigrants in South Africa have to suffer from xenophobia
and also the current situation of this phenomenon in South Africa. Moreover, this
research is going to find out whether uncertainty avoidance which is in Hofstede’s
cultural dimensions could be the cause of xenophobia. lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667 Scope of the Study
The scope of this study focuses on the development of a rise in acts of xenophobia
against foreign nationals living in South Africa and the consequences they may
hold for changing South African viewpoints on uncertainty avoidance over time.
Academic material on uncertainty avoidance as a major cultural characteristic
related to South African society also aided in determining if xenophobic attacks
represent risk-taking attitudes.
Aim of the Study and Research Question
This research is going to figure out the traits of uncertainty avoidance in South
Africa by looking through the wave of xenophobic attacks against foreign
nationals, including refugees, asylum seekers, and both documented and
undocumented migrants, living in the country. With these two variables, the
group aims to explore the characteristics, regarding uncertainty avoidance, of
the South Africans and their culture are reflected into the way they treat
foreigners or immigrants, especially through xenophobic violence - one of the
most prevalent phenomenons in South Africa. Specifically, this research is going
to find a plausible link between uncertainty avoidance and xenophobia in South
Africa, because this cultural dimension and xenophobia involve the fear of the
unknown. Moreover, in order to prove whether uncertainty avoidance is the root
cause leading to xenophobia in this nation, this research is going to provide
readers with findings through movies, documents, and media including
newspaper and magazines to resolve the above question. With this aim set, two
research questions below would be the concrete foundation of our research:
1. What is the relationship between uncertainty avoidance and xenophobia?
2. In what way is that relationship shown in South Africa? lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Literature Review
1. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)
According to Hofstede (1993) - father of cross-cultural research, culture is often
regarded as one of the primary forces influencing human behavior. How people express
and think varies greatly depending on their culture (Crossler et al., 2013; Wang et al.,
2017). Different cultures have different thought patterns and values along various
dimensions, which provides a framework for individuals to use in their daily decision-
making processes. Six characteristics make up the Hofstede model, which is most
frequently applied to national cultural difficulties. These dimensions are Power
Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-term vs. Short-
term Orientation, Indulgence vs. Restraint, and Masculinity vs. Femininity.
Uncertainty avoidance is linked to conservatism, as indicated by a hatred of
innovation and change. Individuals from cultures with a high level of uncertainty
avoidance are more threatened by ambiguous situations, have a strong drive for
consensus, resist change, and are less tolerant of people or groups with diverse ideas
or behaviors. (Gudykunst & Matsumoto, 1996; Hofstede, 1979, 1980). Furthermore,
countries with a high level of uncertainty avoidance were less likely to support
programs promoting social coexistence. This is in line with the original research of lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
Hofstede (1979, 1980), which hypothesized that avoiding uncertainty was linked
to resistance to change and a lower tolerance for diversity. Following Hofstede
(1994), he emphasized that uncertainty avoidance “deals with a society’s
tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity, it ultimately refers to man’s search for
truth.” Afterwards, Seleznyov et al., (2021) added that uncertainty avoidance is
not risk avoidance, but rather a rejection of ambiguity.
1.1 Previous research about UA
According to Hofstede (2001), people from cultures with a high level of uncertainty
avoidance show higher levels of stress and anxiety. Because control is highly valued by
these people, it is beneficial to have a fixed structure in all aspects of their lives. Strict
regulations help them define their beliefs and behavior. They are uncomfortable with
the development of new ideas, therefore they only take chances with those they are
confident will succeed. More importantly, people in uncertainty avoidance cultures “are
often prepared to engage in risky behavior in order to reduce ambiguities—such as
starting a fight with a potential opponent rather than sitting back and waiting”
(Hofstede, 2001). According to Chan-Hoong (2006) in the research about “Cultural
values and attitudes toward immigrants and multiculturalism”, the researcher based on
Hofstede's model of cultural values, nations with high levels of masculinity, collectivism,
power distance, and uncertainty avoidance were expected to have greater anti-
immigrant and anti-multiculturalism sentiments. The theories gained some support.
Furthermore, individuals from cultures with high levels of uncertainty avoidance are
more wary of strangers and have more pessimistic expectations about interacting with
members of the outgroup (Gudykunst, 1983, 1995; Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988).
In the research about Cultural economic development and National ethical attitudes,
several authors contend that those who are strong in uncertainty avoidance are more
aware of ethical issues because they stick to rules and conventions and want to minimize
risks. In the opinion of Hofstede (2001), uncertainty avoidance is also negatively
associated with faith in the police and legal system and generally associated across
cultures with the belief that breaking unfair lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
laws is acceptable. In addition, Hofstede (2015) stated that individuals who live in
cultures with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance may find it frightening to
interact with strangers. They might exhibit xenophobic behaviors.
1.2 Uncertainty Avoidance in South Africa
1.2.1 South Africa's Culture
The "Rainbow Nation", South Africa, is well-known for its vast ethnic and diverse
cultures. The country was divided and segregated by the Apartheid government from
1948 and 1991 based on rigid definitions of race, which had a profound impact on the
culture of the whole nation. Particularly, the Apartheid-era distinction of four ‘ethnic’
groups is still in use today, namely “Black” (for people of African descent), “Coloured”
(mixed-race descent), “Indian” (or “Asian,” for descendants of immigrants from India
and South-East Asia), and “White” (European descent). Since South Africa is home to
all of these individuals, their lives have undoubtedly contributed to the development of
the country's heritage, identity, and culture. Besides, the country has eleven official
languages including Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho,
Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu. Obviously, South Africa has a very
diversified population that represents a wide range of languages, traditions, and values,
which proves that there is no single ‘Culture of South Africa’. According to Valchev
(2012), these population characteristics also make South Africa a particularly
interesting context for cross-cultural studies.
1.2.2 Uncertainty Avoidance in South Africa
A national score on each of the cultural dimensions in the various countries was
obtained by Geert Hofstede in several studies (Hofstede, 1980, 2001, 2008). According to
the data, South Africa scores 49 out of 100 on power distance, indicating that people
accept a hierarchical system in which everyone has a position and requires no more
justification. In terms of masculinity versus femininity, Hofstede’s finding in 2001
placed South Africa as the 13th most masculine among 53 countries. Moreover, some
other dimensions including collectivism and long-term orientation were also measured.
South Africa is considered a rather collectivistic country, which means the lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow
members of their group. Hofstede has no score or rating for South Africa where
long versus short-term orientation is concerned, as this dimension was not part
of the original research. However, The Culture Factor Group, the operating
brand of Hofstede Insights, has currently given South Africa a low score of 18 on
this dimension. This is reflected in their great respect for traditions, a relatively
small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results.
Uncertainty avoidance is the dimension our research group focuses much on as it
is significantly relevant to xenophobia. In Hofstede’s study, South Africa has a
low preference for avoiding uncertainty. However, a study by Schutte (2009) on
revisiting Hofstede among South African students showed a slightly higher than
moderate avoidance of uncertainty as the majority stated that they felt anxious
when they were unsure what was expected of them when working in a group, and
they were uncomfortable when they were unable to fully understand a scenario.
Similarly, Bezuidenhout (2020) also claimed that most South African cultures
tend toward High UAI. This can be proved in the COVID-19 pandemic when
President Ramaphosa and the government acted in a high UAI manner. They
extended the lockdown time in order to lessen the impact of a disaster and hence
have more certainty about the future. Furthermore, Feldman (2019) in a case
study involving Arcelormittal South Africa (AMSA) gave out the result of higher
level of uncertainty avoidance. It can be inferred that South African people tend
to not readily accept change and are very risk adverse.
2. Xenophobia in South Africa
2.1. Definition of xenophobia
Xenophobia has been a historical term used to describe the fright towards foreigners.
However widespread it was used, xenophobia is still an obscure term in political fields
and research debates (Chuma, 2022). According to the Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary, xenophobia is referred to as the “fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
or of anything that is strange or foreign”. Reynolds and Vine (1987) defined
xenophobia as the hostility or fear towards outsiders while Crowther (1995)
mentioned that xenophobia targets those individuals who come from other countries
(recited from Chuma, 2022). Another researcher, Harris (2002), as quoted from
Chuma (2022), stated that a comprehensive definition of the term should take the
why, how and whom xenophobia targets into account as xenophobia can even
violently occur to poor black Africans with the accusation of being spreaders of
disease or affiliated with crimes. Waiganjo (2017) suggested the term “Xenophobia-
Afrophobia” to refer to the xenophobia context in South Africa. In this suggested
definition, xenophobia describes the sense of fear of foreigners while afrophobia
depicts the fear of black foreigners in South Africa. In this research, the researchers
define xenophobia as the sense of hostility and fear towards ones who are considered
“outsiders”, regardless of whether one is South African or not.
While on the subject of xenophobia, it is worth discovering the difference between
xenophobia and racism. Xenophobia and racism can appear in similar ways. However,
their features are distinct to each other in terms of the origins, targets, and the typical
ways of expression (Yakushko, 2009). As restated here from Yakushko (2009), racism is
usually affiliated with “prejudices against individuals founded on a socially constructed
notion of groups’ differentiating visible phenotypic markers, such as skin color.”
Xenophobia, in contrast, does not take visible differences in terms of appearance from
the native individuals into account. In fact, xenophobia occurs to individuals who are
considered foreigners and immigrants in a particular community (Yakushko, 2009).
Xenophobia can target any individuals who are considered the outsiders, regardless of
having racially similar features or not. The conflicts between native individuals and the
ones who are deemed immigrants or foreigners have been examined by many
researchers and are frequently an issue in many different countries across the globe
(Yakushko, 2009). As can be seen, both xenophobic and racist prejudices can share
many features in common; however, racism does not include xenophobia all the time
and vice versa (Yakushko, 2009). lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
2.2. Current context of xenophobia in South Africa
2.2.1. The origins of immigrants in South Africa:
The influx of foreign nationals into South Africa is considered as a possible cause
of xenophobic attack, according to the commentary from a participant in a
xenophobia focus group at the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). South
Africans' hostility against outsiders has increased over the last two decades, since
the country has seen a massive influx of Africans. It is not surprising that
xenophobic attacks happened in 1995 with the inflow of Nigerian and Congolese
immigrants, in the late 2000s with the surge of Zimbabwean immigrants, and
most recently with the influx of Somalian and Ethiopian immigrants. The impact
of this inflow was particularly felt in informal settlements where the urban poor
live, which are also frequent sites of violent attacks (Doniwen, 2022)
2.2.2. Attitudes towards immigrants in South Africa:
Xenophobic attacks range from name-calling, attacks against homes and businesses of
foreigners, and even violent attacks which result in death. One of the manifestations of
xenophobia which expresses clearly the hostility of South Africans towards immigrants
but does not cause any physical harm to foreigners is the prejudices that locals have
imposed on foreigners over the past century. According to Janet (2008), foreigners are
often called names such as ‘makwerekwere’, which is an insulting remark aimed at
nurturing fear and hatred in foreigners. According to research about the term
Makwalekwere, it was used to dehumanize black Africans and make them seem less
human than South Africans. The term is so common that dictionaries mention it as “an
offensive and derogatory slur used in South Africa to describe foreigners from other
African countries." The use of the term Makwalekwere has been associated with
xenophobic attacks in South Africa. Moreover, based on the scapegoating theory. The
Human Rights Watch published an article in which immigrants were blamed for a
decline in the economy, government problems, and numerous social issues in South
Africa, especially crime. The article said that “migrants are often scapegoated for
economic insecurity and government failures in delivering basic services to its citizens''.
Even further, Human Rights Watch also lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
published another article on xenophobic violence following the South African action
plan's implementation: foreign nationals have been the focus of widespread protests
and shutdowns that have resulted in theft, commercial destruction, and mob
violence. Foreigners are also often used as scapegoats and blamed for crimes,
economic insecurity, and government failures. This is reflected in the popular
narrative of "foreigners coming to steal our jobs." (Elzinga, 2022) Therefore, many
press articles in post-apartheid South Africa perpetuate racial and national
prejudices regarding migrants from other African nations, such as portraying
Nigerians as drug dealers and Mozambicans as car thieves (Danso & McDonald,
2000). As a result, Jibrin (2020) claims that foreigners who have come to South
Africa for economic or political purposes are involved in criminal activity. In fact, a
number of researches have shown that, nationally, 48% of South Africans believe
that foreigners are a “criminal threat‟ According to research findings, the majority
of inner-city crime in Johannesburg was believed to be committed by immigrants,
according to 63% of respondents who lived there. Misago and Landau (2004)
revealed that 70% of respondents from Johannesburg strongly believe that the
"foreign invasion" is the main reason for the city's ongoing rise in crime.
In addition, South Africans' attitudes toward foreigners are also clearly conveyed
through how foreigners are called on the media. Robert Winder (2004) uses a few
quotations and standard phrases to show how immigrants were portrayed in the media.
These include; “foreigners are replacing English workers and driving to despair men,
women and children of our blood" (The Times UK), "flood" of migrants "too lazy to
work” (The Evening Standard), "Even the most sentimental,... "will feel that the time
has come to stop the abuse of this country's hospitality by foreign malefactors," (Daily
Mail), "Sick migrants will swamp our wards" (the Sun); "Five hundred immigrants
every day to swamp Britain" (the Express); "Migrant invasion warning" (the Sun
again). These statements are then endorsed by the Conservative member for Stepney,
who declares that “The modern Englishman is in constant danger of being driven from
his home, pushed out by the off-scum of Europe." Frightening disaster metaphors like
"flood", "swamp", and "off-scum" presented foreigners as an out-of-control, lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
agent-less, unwelcome natural disaster. Foreigners are perceived as a threat that
must be eliminated or halted immediately to prevent them from destroying the
native population (Gomo, 2010).
2.2.3. Xenophobic attacks on foreign nationals:
2.2.3.1. The case of xenophobic violence around the world:
Xenophobia is considered a worldwide issue. Xenophobia exists in all countries,
not only in South Africa. But while the time that COVID-19 is affecting everyone
globally, xenophobia is most prevalent in those nations. During this time, Asians
were the victims of xenophobia. Fear of Asians and Xenophobia As COVID-19
expanded over the world, xenophobia and prejudice increased dramatically (He
et al., 2021). Over 1,700 anti-Asian hate cases were recorded in the US in just
three months of 2020, according to the Asian Pacific Policy and Planning Council
(Le et al., 2020). In particular, Chinese Americans suffered the most since China
was falsely blamed for being the source of the intentionally altered virus
(Andersen et al., 2020; Le et al., 2020).
In research by He et al. (2021), 1,767 Chinese participants from 65 countries stated
that they had encountered discriminatory practices such as being rejected by others
and witnessing racist remarks in public and media. Additional research has
demonstrated that, because many Asians have similar physical characteristics, the
growing xenophobia directed toward Chinese Americans has also had an impact on
other Asian ethnic groups, including Korean Americans and Burmese Americans
(Adams, 2020; Pha, 2020; Tessler et al., 2020; Yam, 2020).
Chinese Americans account for 42.8% of all reported incidents among all ethnic
groups, followed by Koreans (16.1%), Pilipinos (8.9%), Japanese (8.2%), and
Vietnamese (8.0%), according to national data from Stop Asian Americans and
Pacific Islanders (AAPI) Hate (March 18, 2020, to December 31, 2021). From
March 19, 2020 to December 31, 2021, a total of 10,905 incidents against people
of Asian origin were reported to Stop AAPI Hate (Yellow Horse et al., 2022). lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
2.2.3.2. The case of xenophobic violence in South Africa:
South Africa had a history of racism until apartheid was abolished in 1994, when
the South African government approved a new constitution (Encyclopedia
Britannica, 2021). According to Matsinhe (2011), when South Africa elected its first
black president in 1994, along with a new constitution that prohibited racial
segregation, it appeared that discrimination and racial segregation were no longer
practiced in the country. The fact that African immigrants may now finally enter
the country was one of the changes brought about by the new constitution.
According to Crush, from 1995 to 2000, approximately 600.000 illegal immigrants
were deported back to their home countries, many of whom were subjected to
torture and cruelty by South African police (Human Rights Watch, 1998; South
African Human Rights Commission, 1999, 2000). Xenophobic attacks have
increased. From 1994 to 2021, Xenowatch reported 615 murders, 4.831 looted stores,
and 122316 displacements in 875 incidents of xenophobic violence. The worst wave
of anti-immigrant incidents occurred in May 2008. Within a few weeks, at least 62
people were killed, hundreds were injured, and over 30.000 people were internally
displaced. In 2021, there were 79 cases of xenophobic violence reported, which led to
359 refugees, 28 deaths, and 130 looted shops, according to Xenowatch. METHODOLOGY
The researchers agree to utilize the qualitative method to conduct this research.
According to Aeneas & Sandin (2009), there is a close relationship between culture
and qualitative research. A qualitative approach can assist the researchers to
conduct deeper and more intricate investigation into the phenomenon xenophobia in
South Africa, thereby exploring the uncertainty avoidance dimension, which is one
of the six dimensions of intercultural communication Hofstede has introduced.
In this paper, document analysis is employed to help gain an in-depth understanding of
the relationship between uncertainty avoidance with xenophobia in South African
countries. Fischer (2005) has stated that document analysis is a systematic procedure
which significantly aids in the reviewing and evaluating processes of computer-based lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
materials. Besides, the research team also decided to conduct a data analysis
method, which is a widely-used approach in the intercultural field for the
convenience it brings in analyzing and interpreting different materials.
The document analysis approach employed in this paper is conducted in two different
phases: reading and interpretation. The data the researchers aim to study includes
previous research, articles, and research journals. Researchers are able to get access to
the Internet. A majority of the materials used in this research comes from public
libraries, newspapers and magazines, educational institutions on the Internet. DISCUSSION
In a research of Leong and Ward (2006), several cultural-level values were examined to
verify their relationship to various aspects of attitudes toward immigrants and
multiculturalism. Based on Hofstede's typology of cultural values, it was hypothesized
that nations with high levels of masculinity, collectivism, power distance, and
uncertainty avoidance would also have higher levels of hostility toward immigration
and multiculturalism. These characteristics are true for South Africa. In terms of
uncertainty avoidance which is defined by Hofstede as “the extent to which the
members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations” (2005), it is
possible to suggest that there is a connection between Hofstede and xenophobia since
they both have the fear of the unknown as one of their traits. Additionally, the motto
"What is different is dangerous" (2005) actually captures Hofstede's philosophy of
uncertainty avoidance. Therefore, these cultures are more likely to have violent
intergroup conflict. This suggests that there is often more ethnic prejudice and
xenophobia in high-UA societies. Based on the current situation of xenophobia in South
Africa, international migrants are accused of stealing jobs, committing crime of
practicing prostitution and engaging in legal mycotic strays. The traditional society's
low trust, which is significantly relevant to fear and uncertainty avoidance dimension,
can be explained for this situation. Besides, significant public support for the idea that
private citizens should take it into their own hands to punish people they perceive as lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
wrongdoers is found in the research conducted by Human Sciences Research
Council (HSRC) in South Africa. This is consistent with Hofstede’s viewpoint
(2001) which claims that people in uncertainty avoidance cultures “are often
prepared to engage in risky behavior in order to reduce ambiguities - such as
starting a fight with a potential opponent rather than sitting back and waiting.”
In the context of South Africa, the fear of the unknown stands as a significant
contributor to xenophobic sentiments. Encounters with unfamiliar cultures and
individuals can trigger feelings of uncertainty and anxiety, amplifying the fear of
outsiders. This apprehension is further exacerbated by cultural disparities in
language, customs, and beliefs, rendering outsiders as figures of strangeness and
menace. This point is exemplified in the science fiction film District 9, which
narrates the first encounter between humans and an alien species, set against the
backdrop of Johannesburg, South Africa. Directed by Neill Blomkamp, who grew
up in South Africa during apartheid, District 9 delves into humanity's interactions
with a species vastly different from its own. It poignantly portrays human arrogance
and intolerance when confronted with the unfamiliar stranger, highlighting the fear
that justifies violence against "them," the different ones (Janks, 2014). Evidently,
the intensity of hatred in South Africa stems not from the actual competitive job
market but from the perception of threat, which is sufficient to ignite animosity.
The fear that fuels xenophobia originates from ignorance stemming from a lack of
information. As Mokegwu (2015) asserts, a lack of understanding suggests that
intercultural communication is ineffective. Effective intercultural communication would
enable members of one culture to comprehend, appreciate, and accommodate members
of another culture with minimal stress and perception of threat. Paradoxically, the mass
media, often believed to play a role in shaping public opinion, actually contributes to
xenophobia in South Africa. Dube (2000) cites a survey by the Southern African
Migration Programme, which indicates that "South Africans display one of the highest
levels of xenophobia in the world." The same survey contends that the South African
media are culpable of exacerbating xenophobic tendencies towards lOMoAR cPSD| 40799667
African migrants. Adding to the plight of many refugees and immigrants, the
South African media have perpetuated the stereotype of the "illegal" African
immigrant as a criminal and a carrier of diseases like HIV/AIDs. The report
further accuses the media of uncritically accepting the words of Home Affairs
officials and the police, who are also accused of xenophobic tendencies. CONCLUSION
Uncertainty avoidance, as explained in the paper, has contributed to xenophobia
through different means of communication and behaviors in South Africa. There
are many causes to this phenomenon, including political, social, and ethnic reasons.
As examined in the research, xenophobia in South African countries, to an extent,
has a close relationship with six dimensions of intercultural communication by
Hofstede, one of which (uncertainty avoidance) has been intricately explained
through a qualitative approach. Ultimately, exploring uncertainty avoidance
through this phenomenon aims to contribute to the understanding of xenophobia
and the current situation of this phenomenon in South African countries, where
xenophobia has reached to a more violent level through social unrest over the years. References
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