SYNTAX MID-TERM II/ trường đại học ngoại ngữ, đại học Đà Nẵng

16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học SYNTAX MID-TERM II What is syntax ?
- Syntax is often equated with the study of sentence structure, eventhough the things we
analyze may not always be complete sentences.
- Syntax concerns the way that words are arranged into larger units. - The basic unit – word
- The largest unit – sentence Section 1. Word classes Major classes Minor classes
- Noun, verbs, adjectives and adverbs
- Pronouns, numerals, determiners, → have a great many members
prepositions, conjunctions and so on → have few members
- Tend to have referential meanings
- Tend not to have referential meanings
(vật/người có ý nghĩa rõ ràng)
→ their meanings are not easily E.g. horse
specified by means of a neat definiton = open classes = closed classes → receptive to new members
→ not receptive to new members
E.g. to receive (V); reception (n); receptive (adj)
English major classes/open classes (have double – track classification)
English form classes (by form) - Nouns - Verbs - Adjectives - Adverbs
English positional classes (by position) - Nominals (danh ngữ) - Verbals (động ngữ) - Adjectivals (tính ngữ) - Adverbials (trạng ngữ) I. NOUNS
- Nouns are indentified by two aspects of form: their inflectional morphemes and their derivational morphemes. - Nouns are indentified by:
2 nouns inflectional morphemes/suffixes: Eg: - Plural - book-s; apple-s; box-es - Possessive
- man’s, girl’s; student’s
Noun – forming derivational morphemes: Eg:
→ Adj, V, N, bound bases + noun – forming
- Accept (V) → accept-ance (N) derivational suffixes = nouns
- Happy (Adj) → happi-ness (N) - Book (N) → book-let (N) - Dent (V,N) → dent-ist (N) about:blank 1/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học
II. VERBS are indentified by:
4 verbs inflectional morphemes/suffixes: Eg:
- Verb 3rd: person singular present tense - walk-s; mix-es morpheme - play-ing; typ-ing
- Verb present participle morpheme (V-ing) - play-ed; drank, thought
- Verb past simple morpheme (V2) - work-ed; drunk; shown
- Verb past participle morpheme (V3)
Verb – forming derivational morphemes Eg:
→Adj, N, bound bases + derivational affixes - ac-knowledge = verbs - bath-e - rip-en - en-large - sanct-ify Interesting story Very interesting V + -ing → adjective Rather interesting
→ {-ing3}: the derivational class – changing Quite interesting
adj – forming morpheme/suffix
→ Degree adverbs → true adjective Melting snow Very melting
V + -ing → present participle
→ {-ing1}: the flectional verb present participle morpheme/suffix The printed statement
→ {-D2}: the infectional verb past participle morpheme A devoted mother
→ {-D3}: the derivational class – changing adjective – forming morpheme
III. ADJECTIVES are identified by:
2 adjectives inflectional suffixes: E.g.
- The adjective comparative morpheme - small-er; saf(e)-er
- The adjective superlative morpheme - small-est; saf(e)-est
Adjective – forming derivational suffixes E.g.
→ N, V, bound bases + derivational suffixes
- Athlete (n) → athlet-ic (adj) = adjectives
- Child (n) → child-ish (adj) about:blank 2/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học
IV. ADVERBS are indentified by:
2 adverbs inflectional morphemes: E.g.
- Adverb comparative morpheme - Adverb - fast-er; hard-er superlative morpheme - fast-est; hard-est
Adverb – forming derivational morpheme E.g.
→ adj + derivational suffix (-ly) = adverbs - Quick-ly; beautiful-ly Quickly
→ {-ly1}: the derivational class – changing adverb – forming suffix Lovely
→ {-ly2}: the derivational class – changing adjective – forming suffix
V. NOMINALS have six positions: Subject of a verb (Subj) - is the safest hiding place. Upstairs
- To err is human, to forgive is divine Subjective complement (Cs) - This book is . hers
- My favourite pastime is swimming.
→ “hers & swimming” identifies “this
book & my favourite pastime” - The box smells funny.
→ “funny” describes “the box” Direct object of a verb (Od)
- Would you like something sweet ? - I hate telling lies. Indirect object of a verb (Oi) - She gave whomever different she met offers.
- She gave nobody a hand shake. Objective complement (Co)
- You’ve made me what I am.
- They named the little dog Neky. Object of a preposition (Op)
- He is interested in nothing.
- The elevator has been used for many years
Section 2. TYPES of PHRASES, CLAUSES and SENTENCES I. PHRASES
- A phrase is a group of words which forms a grammatical unit. It consits of and a head word
all the words clustering around the head word.
E.g. [[A very big black dog] sleeping soundly in [a corner of the room]] (1) (2) (3) about:blank 3/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học
- Phrases have five main kinds: + Noun phrase (NP) + Verb phrase (VP) + Adjective phrase (AP) + Adverb phrase (AdvP) + Prepositional phrase (PP) a) NOUN PHRASES (NP)
(S/Q/D) + Head word (N) + modifiers of N Specifiers
- Ordinals(STT): 1st , 2nd …
- Cardinals(Số đếm): 1, 2… Qualifiers
- General class of objects: nice… Determiners(định ngữ) - General classes: + Wh – determiners + Articles
+ Demonstratives(từ chỉ định) + Quantifying determiners + Possessives FUNCTIONS EXAMPLES M - The town hall clock - Premodifier
- The newspaper, daily Tuoi Tre - Postmodifier
- The high heel shoes were broken - Adjectival modifier
- That day something unusual happened - Adverbial modifier S
- The beautiful flowers are sent to the mothers O
- I have just bought a new dress. - Od
- I bought my best friend a new shirt. - Oi
- I put the pen on the oval table - Op C - She was . the best student - Cs
- We voted him the committee chairman - Co b) VERB PHRASE (VP)
Head word (V) + other words and word groups Auxiliaries Modifiers Complements + Subjective complements (Cs) + Direct object (Od) + Indirect object (Oi) + Objective complement (Co) about:blank 4/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học
- Verb phrases can come in a variety of shapes: V alone Ann cried V + NP Ann made a cake V + NP + PP
Ann put the pen on the table V + AP Ann is happy V + AP + PP
Ann seems friendly to us V + NP + NP
Ann sent her friend a letter V + Q
Ann’s complaints were many - Verb phrase has two types: Finite VP Non – finite VP  Has tense  Infinitive phrase  Is verb of the clause  Present participle phrase  Agrees with the subject  Past participle phrase  Gerund
E.g. I have been waiting for long time.
E.g. To live is to struggle (S – Cs)
- Non – finite verb phrase consists: HEADWORD FUCTIONS EXAMPLE 1. Infinitive Infinitive S To live is to struggle phrase Cs I want to stay with you
Adjectival M That day was the day to remember Adverbial M
I learn English to get a good job 2. Gerund Gerund S Swimming is my hobby → acts like a noun Od I like swimming Oi
I gave swimming all my time Op
Before swimming, don’t eat too much Cs My hobby is swimming Co I consider this way being in prison living 3. Present Present participle
Adjectival M The boy sitting near the windows is my participle phrase → acts like a verb brother or adjective Adverbial M
She arrived smilling happily 4. Past participle Past participle Adjectival M The child by his father runs away punished phrase from home Adverbial M
Delayed by the weather, the train arrived two hours late about:blank 5/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học c) ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AP)
- Degree’ words (very, somewhat…) + Head word (Adv) HEAD WORD FUNCTIONS EXAMPLE Adjective Noun M
She is a very beautiful girl Cs She is very beautiful Co
I found her very helpful d) ADVERBIAL PHRASE (AdvP)
- Degree’ words (very, somewhat…) + Head word (Adv) HEAD WORD FUNCTIONS EXAMPLE Adverb Verb M
He was received rather less enthusiastically
e) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP)
- Head word (Prep) + a noun phrase (object of preposition) HEAD WORD FUNCTIONS EXAMPLE Preposition S
On the beach is better than at home Cs
Our happy time is after dinner Op
The view from above the shore is magnificent Adjective M
The boy near the door is my brother Adverbial M
She is living near the school Complement of
I am terribly bad at mathematics Adj II. CLAUSES
- A clause is a group of words which has subject verb combination. It has a complete meaning by itself.
E.g. He plays cricket regularly S V Independent
- A complete sentence by itself E.g. You may sit.
- Doesn’t need any other clause for its S V existance Dependent
- Subject verb combination - No E.g. wherever you like complete thought S V
- Dependent on independent clause about:blank 6/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học DEPENDENT CLAUSE Noun clause is a group of words which E.g. has subject and verb, acts as
- I fear that I will fail. a noun
- That you have come pleases me.
Adjective clause is a group of words which E.g. has subject and verb, acts as
- The umbrella which has a broken an adjective and describes handles is mine. noun
- He met a girl whose eyes were blue. Adverb clause is a group of words which E.g. has subject and verb, acts as
- They rested when the evening an adverb came.
- I will give you a map so that you can find a way SUBORDINATORS Mệnh đề danh từ
That (Sự thật là, rằng…)
Wh- (why, where, when, who, what)
How... (how often, how many, how much)
If/whether (Có phải hay không)
*Lưu ý: Khi dùng “whether” ta có thể thêm “or not”.
Ví dụ: I don’t know whether she knows me or not. = I don’t know whether she knows me.
Mệnh đề tính từ
Who, [whose + noun], that, which, when, where Mệnh đề trạng Clause of time
Once, when, while, before, after, since, till/until/by the time(cho ngữ tới khi), just as, whenever
Eg: While she was cooking, I came in. Clause of place
Where, whenever, anywhere, everywhere
Eg: I will go wherever you go. Clause of condition
If, unless, as long as, supposing that, provided that
Eg: I will only attend the event if you personally invite me. Clause of purpose
So that/in order that, in case/for fear that(trong khi/phòng khi)
Eg: He reads so hard so that he can graduate top of his class Clause of reason
Because/since/as, seeing that(bởi vì)
Eg: He was not happy because he could not make the list. Clause of constract
Though/although/even though, inspite of/despite,
while/whereas/meanwhile(trong khi đó), nevertheless(tuy nhiên)
Eg: Even though he cannot drive, he loves cars Clause of manner
As(như là), as if/ as though(như thể/như thể là)
Eg: Please do it exactly as I instructed Clause of result So…that, such…that
Eg: This table is so heavy that we can’t bring it out Clause of degree
According to as, according to how
Eg: The building is very huge according to how expensive it is about:blank 7/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học
1. What are the functions of noun equivalents (nominal clause noun/ pronoun/ noun
phrase/ to infinitive/gerund)? Give examples for illustration. FUNCTIONS EXAMPLE Subject.(S)
What he said inspires me. What he told me is true
Whoever borrow my shirt is in big trouble. Direct object.(Od)
I appreciate what he done for me. I like what he told me Indirect object.(Oi)
I will give the prize to whomever arrives first at the finish line.
I’ll give the gift to whoever I like Subjective complement.(Cs)
The problem is that you never think before you speak.
That’s what he told me Objective complement.(Co)
You may call your husband whatever you wish.
You can call me whatever you like Adjective complement.(Cadj) I’m not aware . that he told a lie
I am afraid what people have done. Prepositional complement.
I’m interested in what he told me. (Cprep)
The teacher listened to what the students said
Appositive.(App): Đồng vị ngữ The news that she married a foreigner is true.
This is the novel that I like.
2. What is the function of adjective equivalents (adjective clause, adjective/ adjective
phrase/ prepositional phase)? Illustrate with examples.
- Only one function: Modifier : is post-modifier to the preceding noun. - Examples:
+ The news that made me sad is true. (Adjective clause as Mod to “news”) (“that” -> S)
+ The news that I got yesterday is true.(Adjective clause as Mod to “news”) (“that”->Od)
3. What is the main function of adverbial equivalents (adverbial clause/adverb/ adverb
phrase/ prepositional phrase)? Illustrate with examples.
- Mainly functions as an Adjunct to “a related - meaning verb”. - Examples:
+ I’ll leave when she comes tomorrow. (Adv C as Ad to “leave”)
+ Though you may or may not like it, it is my duty to send you there. (Adv C as Ad to “is”). III. SENTENCES a) Subject/Predicate
- A sentence is a sequence of words whose first word starts with a capital letter and whose last
word is followed by an end punctuation mark (period/full stop, question mark or exclamation mark).
- The simple subject is always a noun/pronoun and the simple predicate is always a verb.
E.g. John often comes late to class.
My friend and I both have a dog named Spot. about:blank 8/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học b) Sentence types
- A way to categorize sentences is by the clauses they contain.
- A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.
- There are the 4 sentence types.
Simple sentences (câu Contains a single, independent E.g. I don’t like dog. đơn) clause
Compound sentences Contains two independent E.g. I don’t like dogs, and (câu ghép) clauses that are joined by a my sister doesn’t like cats. coordinating conjunction. The most common coordinating
conjunctions are: and, or, but, so... Complex sentences
Contains an independent clauses E.g. Although he is sick, he (câu phức) plus one dependent clause. A still goes to school.
dependent clause starts with a
subordinating conjunction (that, because, although...) Compound –
Contains 3 or more clauses (of E.g. I don’t like dogs, and Complex sentences which at least two are my sister doesn’t like cats (câu phức – phép) independent and one is because they make her dependent) sneeze.
- Sentences can also be categorized according to their function.
- Independent clauses are also called main clauses. Denpendent clauses are also called subordinate clauses. IV. SENTENCE SYNTHESIS
4. How different are simple sentences, subordination, coordination, and subcoordination? Clarify with examples.
A simple sentence is a sentence containing Eg
only one clause, or more specifically, an Tom reads novels.
independent clause, with a subject and a predicate
Subordination has one main clause plus at Eg
least one subordinate clause headed by a
Although Tom reads novels, Jame reads subordinating conjunction. comics
Coordination has at least 2 independent Eg
clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
Tom reads novels, but Jame reads comics.
(aka FANBOYS) or a conjunctive adverb
(e.g. however, therefore) or a semicolon
Sub-coordination is the combination of Eg
subordination and coordination, which
While Tom reads novels, Jame reads comics,
contains at least 2 independent clauses and but Sam reads only magazines
one or more subordinate clauses about:blank 9/10 16:31 5/9/24 Syntax MID - cú pháp học about:blank 10/10