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The effect of road - English | Trường Đại học Khánh Hòa

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53 27 lượt tải Tải xuống
Abstract—Planning, Designing and constructing road
infrastructure should give priority to the safety and comfort for
road users. Ironically, road infrastructure often becomes the
cause of traffic accidents. However, such problem can be solved
with a profound understanding in the effect of road
infrastructure formation elements on the risk of accidents, so that
the handling taken can be more efficient. This study aims to (1)
review and see the effect of road infrastructure on accidents, (2)
provide handling efforts to improve road infrastructure safety.
Secondary sources in the form of books and academic journals
were reviewed to answer the research objectives above. The
results of the study indicated that the elements in road
infrastructure formation had significant effect on the risk of
traffic accident. Preventing and handling traffic accidents in
terms of the road infrastructure can start from planning,
designing, constructing, and improving road infrastructure in
accordance with prevailing procedures such as Road Safety
Audit (RSA) and Road Safety Inspection (RSI). The role of
government such as making safety design standard, assuring
compliance with these rules, and methods to measure and rate
the overall level of safety being achieved is needed in order to
improve road safety.
Index Terms—Safety, road infrastructure, road infrastructure
elements, traffic accidents, road users.
I. INTRODUCTION
raffic safety is one of the global issues that have to be
taken seriously. The World Health Organization (WHO)
in 2015 [1] shows that the number of traffic accidents
occurring around the world did not decrease, but increases
from 2001 to 2013. WHO also shows that traffic accidents
have killed more than 1.2 million people annually and become
the number one cause of death among those aged 15-29.
Several literatures show that human, vehicles, roads and
environment, as well as interaction between these factors are
the main causes of traffic accidents. Road infrastructures as
one of the causes of traffic accident should be designed and
constructed by accommodate all aspects of safety for its users
A. Pembuain is with the Student, Doctoral Program of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Gadjah
Mada, 55281, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (e-mail:
ardilson_pembuain@yahoo.com).
S. Priyanto is with the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Gadjah Mada, 55281, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia.
L. B. Suparma Civil and Environmental Engineering is with the
Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Gadjah Mada, 55281,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
into consideration in order to minimize the risk of traffic
accidents.
Road width that is too narrow or doesn’t comply with
standards, sharp curves, steep downhill and uphill, pavement
surface damage, and non-illuminated roads are some of the
factors that cause traffic accidents. Road infrastructure that
should provide the users safety and comfort, ironically
becomes the cause of traffic accidents. Therefore, a profound
study to reduce traffic accident due to road infrastructure and
to understand the influence of each element that form road
infrastructure on traffic accidents should be performed so that
the process of handling road safety can be more effective.
The objectives of this research are to (1) see and discuss the
effect of road infrastructure on traffic accidents and (2)
provide handling efforts to improve road infrastructure safety.
This study employed secondary sources in the form of
academic journals and books relevant to this study, which
were review and discussed to answer both research objectives
above. This research was not limited to certain types of roads.
In this study, the effect of road infrastructure on traffic
accidents was seen and discussed in general. Furthermore, it is
expected this research to provide more profound knowledge
and understanding of the importance of providing a well
designed and constructed road infrastructure by taking the
safety aspects into consideration so as to minimize the risk of
traffic accidents.
In general, the discussion in this study is divided into 3
main sections. First, research method describes the methods
and data employed as well as also general description of the
analysis process. Second, analysis and discussion to explore
the influence of road infrastructure on traffic accidents and
explains some efforts to improve the safety of road users.
Third, the conclusion is the results of the discussion and
analysis of the previous sections.
II. RESEARCH METHODS
The two main issues that want to be answered in this study
are discussing the influence of road infrastructure on traffic
accidents and showing the efforts that can be done to improve
traffic safety. Article review was used to answer both research
objectives in which secondary sources in the form of academic
journals and books relevant to this study were collected,
reviewed and discussed in order to answer both research
questions above. The analysis and discussion process in this
study were divided into 3 main sections:
- Breaking down the road infrastructure into its elements.
The Effect of Road Infrastructure on Traffic
Accidents
Ardilson Pembuain, Sigit Priyanto, and Latif B. Suparma
T
11th Asia Pacific Transportation and the Environment Conference (APTE 2018)
Copyright © 2019, the Authors. Published by Atlantis Press.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
147
- Discussion to explore the influence of road infrastructure
elements on traffic accidents
- Discussing efforts that should be made to improve safety
in terms of road infrastructure.
III. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
A. Elements of road infrastructure
Before discussing the effect of road infrastructure on traffic
accidents, road infrastructure should be broken down into its
constituent elements. The division of road infrastructure into
its constituent elements would make the discussion easier
because it would focus on the influence of each element on the
risk of accidents. The road infrastructure elements were
determined based on the following premises:
- Road infrastructure is defined as a land transport
infrastructure including all parts of the road, including
complementary buildings and equipment intended for
traffic [2].
- In order to build a secure road infrastructure, roads must be
built on the principles of security and safety. Security
related to requirement of road engineering and safety
concern with road surface conditions and geometric
conditions [2].
- Roads that are feasible to operate should technically
comply with: (a) road geometry; (b) pavement structures;
(c) road complementary building structure; (d) use of parts
of the road; (e) traffic management and engineering; and
(f) road equipment [3].
Based on the three premises above, this research divides the
elements of road infrastructure as follows: (a) Geometric (lane
width, horizontal curves, and vertical curves), (b) Road
surface condition, (c) Road side hazard, (d) Complementary
building of the road (sidewalk and bus bays), and (e) Road
equipment (markings, signs, and lights). The five elements and
sub elements will be discussed to see the effect on traffic
accidents in the next section.
B. Influence of road infrastructure elements on traffic
accidents
Table I show the literature used to discuss the relationship
between elements of road infrastructure and traffic accidents.
Discussion of the influence of each element in causing the
accident will be explained later.
TABLE I
LITERATURE
Sub Elements of Road
Infrastructure
Literature
Lane width
[4] [11]-
Horizontal curve
[12] [16]-
Vertical curve
[15], [17]-[20]
[21] [28]-
[29] [38]-
Sidewalk
[39] [45]-
Bus bay
[46] [51]-
Marking
[52] [58]-
Signs
[59] [63]-
Lights
[64] [69]-
1) Road Geometric
Lane Width - Each type of road has a range of width
requirements for the lane in its design. For example, on
highway design policies for arterial roadways indicating that
the range of usable widths is 3.0 m to 3.6 meters [4]. This
width is also applicable for other types of roads with
variations of different lane width ranges. The flexibility of
determining the width of the given lane is based on
environmental and economic conditions.
Related to the lower limits and upper limits of the width of
the lane, there is a conventional wisdom that says: the
narrower the lane, the higher traffic accident rate [5]. This is
because the wider the lane, the wider the distance between
vehicles moving between the adjacent lanes thus providing a
larger space for improving position when the accident almost
takes place [6].
Research conducted by Potts et al. aiming to prove such [5]
revelation on urban and suburban roads suggest that the use of
lane widths smaller than 3.6 m does not indicate an increase in
the number of accidents on urban and suburban roads. This
research suggests that geometric design procedures should
provide flexibility for narrower lanes.
This is in contrast to research conducted by Hadi &
Aruldhas which suggests that wider urban road lanes are [7]
safer for the four-lane urban undivided (3.7 m) and six lane
urban freeways (3.7m). This is consistent with other studies
[8] [11] which suggest that roads with wider lanes can reduce
the rate of traffic accidents.
In general, the studies described above show the effect of
the width of the lane on traffic accidents as well as the lane
width range requirements for each type of road. The use of the
upper limit of the road width is preferred to guarantee the
safety of road users.
Horizontal Curve - Horizontal curve is a section or segment
of the road that provides a transition from one straight road to
the next straight road. Drivers will experience a centrifugal
force as they pass through the horizontal curve segment which
makes the driver must react to this force in order to pass the
segment safely so that an accident will not take place [12]. In
their research, Hall & Hall [12] showed that the number of
traffic accidents in the horizontal segment from 2003 to 2005
in North Carolina was 95,552 incidents for all types of roads.
Banihashemi [13] also added that the effect of horizontal
curve on accidents is significant in the type of two lane
undivided urban arterials. In addition, the most common types
of accidents in the horizontal curve area are run off road
crushes and head on crashes [14].
Several attempts have been made to understand the effect of
horizontal curve characteristics on traffic accidents, and the
results found indicate that the geometric characteristics of the
horizontal curve that affect the occurrence of accidents are
radius, length, presence of adjacent curves, the presence of
transition curves and super elevation [15], [16].
Some efforts that can be made to improve the safety of road
users related to geometric problems is performing good
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
148
geometric planning and design, improving harmful geometric
on the existing road, providing advanced warning in horizontal
curves and combining it with road marking.
Vertical Curve - Vertical curves are used to provide a
smooth transition between vertical tangents of different grade.
It is parabolic curve and is usually centered on the intersection
point of the vertical tangents [17]. In general, vertical curves
are divided into two: cras curves and sag curves h [15]. In
relation to the issue of traffic accidents, several studies have
shown statistically that vertical curve is one of the causes of
accidents.
Research conducted to understand the correlation between
vertical curves and traffic accidents indicate that the geometric
characteristics of vertical curves such as steep gradient and
continuous long descent are very influential on the occurrence
of accidents [18]. This may be due to vehicles with very
different climbing capabilities running together on slopes with
high steepness can affect the level of road capacity and the
risk of traffic accidents. In addition, the rate of traffic
accidents in the vertical curvature of the downhill direction is
higher than that of the uphill direction [19]. This may be due
to the continuous downhill segment of the brake burning out
or losing effectiveness, so the length of longitudinal must be
limited.
Sharp crest and sag curves can affect traffic accidents in the
same way as horizontal curves because of the short visibility
of the crest curves and the far reaching distance of the sag
curves can increase the risk of accidents [15]. In addition to
the above factors, one of the vertical curved geometric
characteristics affecting road safety is the width of the road
[20].
Thus, it can be said that the planning and design of vertical
road curves that are not steep and long should be avoided in
order to improve the safety of road users passing through such
vertical curve segment.
2) Road Surface Conditions
Road surface or pavement distress is a condition of road
damage such as cracking, patching and potholes, surface
deformation, and surface deflect [21]. This research discusses
the effect of pavement distress on the risk of accidents based
on collective damage conditions of pavement surfaces. Road
surface condition is a matter of concern especially for traffic
safety aspect. Poor road surface conditions (large potholes and
deep crack exists, discomfort at slow speeds) can lead to high
rate of accidental fatality, especially in high speed roads in
single vehicle and multi vehicle accident types [22].
Several studies [23] [28] have been conducted to see the
relationship between traffic accident and road surface
conditions. In general, the results of these studies indicate that
there is a close correlation between road surface conditions
and the frequency of traffic accidents. The recommendations
given by Chan et al [27] and Li et al [26] are a good
maintenance process on pavement surface conditions can
reduce the rate of traffic accidents. Furthermore, road should
be maintained under acceptable conditions above poor to keep
the safety and comfort of road users [22].
3) Road Side Hazard
A roadside Hazard is any fixed object located on the side of
the road within a free area that can increase the severity of the
crash [29]. In general, these road side hazards are
miscellaneous fixed objects, sign supports, tree groups, and
utility poles along the roadway [30]. This dangerous roadside
condition is very influential on the severity of run-off type
road accident (ROR) [31, 34] because when the vehicle
undergoes run off road accident, the driver who cannot control
the vehicle is at risk of hitting trees or dangerous objects in
side of the road that can increase the level of accidental
fatalities.
In addition to some of the above studies, researches to see
the effect of roadside hazards on the fatality rate of casualty
victims have been done since a long time ago. In general,
these studies conclude that roadside hazard conditions such as
trees and others can aggravate the fatalities of traffic accidents
[35, 38].
Some of the recommended measures for dealing with this
problem are eliminating hazards, relocating hazard, modifying
hazard, closing hazard, or using the concept of clear zone
where road side can be driven and clean from hazard object
[29].
4) Road Complementary Building
Sidewalk Traffic activities are generally reserved for
vehicular traffic and pedestrian traffic [39]. It is important to
take pedestrian safety into consideration because the traffic
process begins and ends by walking. One of the facilities of
pedestrian infrastructure is sidewalk. In regard to pedestrian
safety issues, sidewalks that no longer work well because of
damage such as deterioration, pitting, spilling, scaling,
cracking, and heaving make pedestrians difficult to use such
facilities [40], in addition, blocked sidewalk can also make
pedestrians enter the road body which may harm themselves
and other road users [41].
Studies related to sidewalk functionality for the safety of
road users have been undertaken by some earlier researchers
and, in general, those studies demonstrate well-designed [42,
43] and well maintained pedestrian facilities [40, 44, 45] so
that pedestrians can use the sidewalk facility in accordance
with its function that will improve the safety of every road
users.
Bus bay The bus stop is part of an important
complementary road building in a transportation system. The
bus stop serves to load and unload passengers [46]. Generally,
the bus stop is divided into two: Curb side bus stop and bus
bay [46, 47]. In relation to traffic safety, bus stops can affect
the high risk of accidents [48], especially for buses that are not
separated by their own lane.
Several studies have been conducted to see how the impact
of these two bus stop types on accidents. Curb bus stops can
cause long bottlenecks and delays due to large bus dimensions
[46, 49], in addition, curb stops that are parallel to roads will
cause large traffic conflicts due to vehicle maneuvering behind
buses as well as buses pulling in and out [47]. Some of these
things cause the bus stop is very risky to traffic accidents.
Unlike the bus stop, the bus bay can disentangle the flow of
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
149
the vehicle better [50, 51], in addition, the number of conflict
between bus and other vehicles on the mixed traffic is fewer
so it is safer than the curb bus stop [47]. Some of these studies
suggest that the use of bus bays would be better for areas with
high traffic volumes than bus curb in terms of road safety.
5) Road Equipment
Marking – Marking is defined as a sign on the surface of the
road or on the road surface that includes equipment or signs
that form longitudinal lines, transverse lines, slanting lines,
and symbols that serve to direct the flow of traffic and limit
the area of the traffic [52]. In terms of the function of road
markings, it can be said that marking plays a significant role to
maintain the safety of road users, especially when the
visibility becomes the main factor.
One of the environmental influences on traffic accidents is
driving at night or in bad weather which results in a decrease
in driver’s visibility [53]. When visibility is bad, good road
marking conditions can improve road users' safety [54, . In 57]
addition, other studies have also shown that the use of edge
lines in curve can improve the safety of road users [58].
Generally speaking, the conclusions drawn from these
studies indicate that road markings can help drivers feel more
comfortable and help drivers look at their lanes when passing
through areas with low visibility (night or rain).
Signs – Traffic signs are part of street equipment in the form
of symbols, letters, numbers, sentences, and/or combinations
that serve as warnings, prohibitions, orders or directions for
road users [59]. Like road markings, the functions of signs are
critical to the safety of road users as they can provide
warnings or clues to road conditions.
The effect of signs on traffic safety such as variable
messages can affect driver behavior to decrease vehicle speed
[60]. The use of road signs can also improve safety in the
curve segment. The use of warning signs and speed limits may
decrease the speed of vehicle users as it approaches road
curves [61]. This is supported by other studies showing that
the use of chevron signals has a significant effect on the
decrease in velocity in curved areas [62] and the addition of
herring bones, chevron markers, and repeater arrow signs can
decrease and maintain vehicle position in the lane in the
curved segment [63].
Lights In general, lights work to illuminate the street
environment at night. One of the road environmental factors
that affect the occurrence of accidents is night at which
visibility becomes a major problem [64]. The risk of accidents
occurring with high severity is more prevalent at night [65].
One of the efforts that can be made to reduce the number of
traffic accidents at night is by using street lighting.
The effect of street lighting on traffic accidents has been
done by several researchers and they show that the number of
traffic accidents on roads without lights is higher than roads
without street lighting, either on straight road segments [66,
67], curved road [67] as well as on the intersection segment
[68, 69].
C. Efforts to handle traffic accidents in terms of road
infrastructure
Discussions about the influence of road infrastructure
elements on the risk of accidents show that the road
infrastructure has very significant effect on traffic accidents.
The results are reinforced by the WHO in 2015 [1] in a report
entitled Global Status Report of Road Safety indicating that
the improvement of road infrastructure is a key mechanism for
the making of safer roads.
The life cycle of road infrastructure is planning, design,
build, operate, decommission [70]. Road infrastructure safety
conditions should be handled at each stage of the cycle in
order to maintain road users' safety and comfort. Road
Infrastructure Safety Management (RISM) is one of the road
safety management efforts in terms of the road infrastructure
[70, . RSIM is a set of procedures that suppo72] rt decision-
making by relevant road authorities to improve the safety of
road infrastructure networks that can be implemented at an
early stage of the project life cycle that allows a proactive
approach on roads to be built as well as on existing roads that
allow a reactive approach [72]. In general, RSIM has many
tools that can be applied to improve the safety of road
infrastructure. However, the most commonly used tool is Road
Safety Audit (proactive) that begins in the planning, design,
construction, and pre-opening and Road Safety Inspection
(reactive) stages applied to existing roads for maintenance or
renewal processes [70, 72]. Jamroz et al [70] also said that
Road Safety Audit can reduce 10-25% of casualties while road
safety audit is 1 - 20%.
Not enough just by doing the above efforts to improve
traffic safety. Bener et. al in his res[73] earch titled Strategy to
Improve Road Safety in Developing Countries said that the
difference between developed and developing countries is in
the way reducing the number of accidents because road safety
is more appreciated in developed countries and there is no way
to improve safety roads but adopting comprehensive
preventive and handling strategies for the prevention of traffic
accidents and this can be done through close collaboration
between traffic police, health, law, and transport authorities.
Such results are consistent with the WHO’s 2015 Decade of
Action (DoA) program [1]. The importance of government
factors in reducing the level of traffic accidents is shown in
fig. 1. Bliss et al [74] discussed about the new road safety
management tools that have been developed by World Bank
and ISO as shown in fig.1 which can be used as road safety
work framework. In general, road safety management is
production process with three interrelated elements i.e.
institutional management functions produce interventions that
produce results. This means that the seriousness and
commitment of the government in improving traffic safety is a
key factor in handling traffic accidents.
The government's
direct role for road infrastructure safety, which is by making
safety design standard, assuring compliance with these rules,
and methods to measure and rate the overall level of safety
being achieved.
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
150
Fig. 1. Road safety management system [74]
IV. CONCLUSIONS
This study aims to (1) review and see the impact of road
infrastructure on accidents, (2) provide handling efforts to
improve road infrastructure safety. There are three conclusions
that can be drawn, namely:
a. In order to see the effect of road infrastructure on traffic
accidents, this study divided road infrastructure into its
constituent elements and then observed the correlation
between each element of the road infrastructure and the
accidents they caused. The results of this study indicated
that road elements such as road geometry, road surface
conditions, road side hazards, road complementary
buildings, and road equipment have significant effect on
traffic accidents. Therefore, a safe road infrastructure is a
road infrastructure in which each element is built
according to the planning standards by taking all aspects of
safety into consideration.
b. The life cycle of road infrastructure is plan, design, build,
and operate. Implementation safe road infrastructure must
begin at each stage of the life cycle of road. This can be
done by using some RISM tools such as Road Safety Audit
(RSA) conducted at the planning, design, construction and
early stage of road operation and Road Safety Inspection
(RSI) conducted on existing road. The use of these two
tools has been proven to reduce the rate of traffic accidents
by 10 25% and 1 20% respectively.- -
c. The seriousness and commitment of the government are
key factors in the handling of traffic safety. Government
efforts such as making a standard safety design, assuring
compliance with these rules, and methods to measure and
rate the overall level of safety being achieved will help
improve traffic safety from the aspect of road
infrastructure. However, these efforts are not sufficient. A
comprehensive traffic accidents handling strategy and
close collaboration between traffic police, health, law, and
transport authorities in preventing and resolving traffic
accidents can increase the traffic safety level of a country.
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Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
11th Asia Pacific Transportation and the Environment Conference (APTE 2018)
The Effect of Road Infrastructure on Traffic Accidents
Ardilson Pembuain, Sigit Priyanto, and Latif B. Suparma
into consideration in order to minimize the risk of traffic
Abstract—Planning, Designing and constructing road accidents.
infrastructure should give priority to the safety and comfort for
Road width that is too narrow or doesn’t comply with
road users. Ironically, road infrastructure often becomes the
standards, sharp curves, steep downhill and uphill, pavement
cause of traffic accidents. However, such problem can be solved
surface damage, and non-illuminated roads are some of the
with a profound understanding in the effect of road
infrastructure formation elements on the risk of accidents, so that

factors that cause traffic accidents. Road infrastructure that
the handling taken can be more efficient. This study aims to (1)
should provide the users safety and comfort, ironically
review and see the effect of road infrastructure on accidents, (2)
becomes the cause of traffic accidents. Therefore, a profound
provide handling efforts to improve road infrastructure safety.
study to reduce traffic accident due to road infrastructure and
Secondary sources in the form of books and academic journals
to understand the influence of each element that form road
were reviewed to answer the research objectives above. The
infrastructure on traffic accidents should be performed so that
results of the study indicated that the elements in road
the process of handling road safety can be more effective.
infrastructure formation had significant effect on the risk of
traffic accident. Preventing and handling traffic accidents in

The objectives of this research are to (1) see and discuss the
terms of the road infrastructure can start from planning,
effect of road infrastructure on traffic accidents and (2)
designing, constructing, and improving road infrastructure in
provide handling efforts to improve road infrastructure safety.
accordance with prevailing procedures such as Road Safety
This study employed secondary sources in the form of
Audit (RSA) and Road Safety Inspection (RSI). The role of
academic journals and books relevant to this study, which
government such as making safety design standard, assuring
compliance with these rules, and methods to measure and rate

were review and discussed to answer both research objectives
the overall level of safety being achieved is needed in order to
above. This research was not limited to certain types of roads. improve road safety.
In this study, the effect of road infrastructure on traffic
accidents was seen and discussed in general. Furthermore, it is
Index Terms—Safety, road infrastructure, road infrastructure
expected this research to provide more profound knowledge
elements, traffic accidents, road users.
and understanding of the importance of providing a well
designed and constructed road infrastructure by taking the
safety aspects into consideration so as to minimize the risk of I. INTRODUCTION traffic accidents.
raffic safety is one of the global issues that have to be
In general, the discussion in this study is divided into 3
Ttaken seriously. The World Health Organization (WHO) main sections. First, research method describes the methods
in 2015 [1] shows that the number of traffic accidents
and data employed as well as also general description of the
occurring around the world did not decrease, but increases
analysis process. Second, analysis and discussion to explore
from 2001 to 2013. WHO also shows that traffic accidents
the influence of road infrastructure on traffic accidents and
have killed more than 1.2 million people annually and become
explains some efforts to improve the safety of road users.
the number one cause of death among those aged 15-29.
Third, the conclusion is the results of the discussion and
Several literatures show that human, vehicles, roads and
analysis of the previous sections.
environment, as well as interaction between these factors are
the main causes of traffic accidents. Road infrastructures as II. RESEARCH METHODS
one of the causes of traffic accident should be designed and
The two main issues that want to be answered in this study
constructed by accommodate all aspects of safety for its users
are discussing the influence of road infrastructure on traffic
accidents and showing the efforts that can be done to improve
A. Pembuain is with the Student, Doctoral Program of Civil and
traffic safety. Article review was used to answer both research
Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Gadjah Mada, 55281, Yogyakarta, Indonesia (e-mail:
objectives in which secondary sources in the form of academic ardilson_pembuain@yahoo.com).
journals and books relevant to this study were collected,
S. Priyanto is with the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department,
reviewed and discussed in order to answer both research
Faculty of Engineering, University of Gadjah Mada, 55281, Yogyakarta,
questions above. The analysis and discussion process in this Indonesia.
L. B. Suparma is with the Civil and Environmental Engineering
study were divided into 3 main sections:
Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Gadjah Mada, 55281,
- Breaking down the road infrastructure into its elements. Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Copyright © 2019, the Authors. Published by Atlantis Press.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). 147
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
- Discussion to explore the influence of road infrastructure Lights [64]-[69] elements on traffic accidents
- Discussing efforts that should be made to improve safety 1) Road Geometric
in terms of road infrastructure.
Lane Width - Each type of road has a range of width
requirements for the lane in its design. For example, on III. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
highway design policies for arterial roadways indicating that
the range of usable widths is 3.0 m to 3.6 meters [4]. This
A. Elements of road infrastructure
width is also applicable for other types of roads with
Before discussing the effect of road infrastructure on traffic
variations of different lane width ranges. The flexibility of
accidents, road infrastructure should be broken down into its
determining the width of the given lane is based on
constituent elements. The division of road infrastructure into
environmental and economic conditions.
its constituent elements would make the discussion easier
Related to the lower limits and upper limits of the width of
because it would focus on the influence of each element on the
the lane, there is a conventional wisdom that says: the
risk of accidents. The road infrastructure elements were
narrower the lane, the higher traffic accident rate [5]. This is
determined based on the following premises:
because the wider the lane, the wider the distance between
- Road infrastructure is defined as a land transport
vehicles moving between the adjacent lanes thus providing a
infrastructure including all parts of the road, including
larger space for improving position when the accident almost
complementary buildings and equipment intended for takes place [6]. traffic [2].
Research conducted by Potts et al. [5] aiming to prove such
- In order to build a secure road infrastructure, roads must be
revelation on urban and suburban roads suggest that the use of
built on the principles of security and safety. Security
lane widths smaller than 3.6 m does not indicate an increase in
related to requirement of road engineering and safety
the number of accidents on urban and suburban roads. This
concern with road surface conditions and geometric
research suggests that geometric design procedures should conditions [2].
provide flexibility for narrower lanes.
- Roads that are feasible to operate should technically
This is in contrast to research conducted by Hadi &
comply with: (a) road geometry; (b) pavement structures;
Aruldhas [7] which suggests that wider urban road lanes are
(c) road complementary building structure; (d) use of parts
safer for the four-lane urban undivided (3.7 m) and six lane
of the road; (e) traffic management and engineering; and
urban freeways (3.7m). This is consistent with other studies (f) road equipment [3].
[8]–[11] which suggest that roads with wider lanes can reduce
Based on the three premises above, this research divides the
the rate of traffic accidents.
elements of road infrastructure as follows: (a) Geometric (lane
In general, the studies described above show the effect of
width, horizontal curves, and vertical curves), (b) Road
the width of the lane on traffic accidents as well as the lane
surface condition, (c) Road side hazard, (d) Complementary
width range requirements for each type of road. The use of the
building of the road (sidewalk and bus bays), and (e) Road
upper limit of the road width is preferred to guarantee the
equipment (markings, signs, and lights). The five elements and safety of road users.
sub elements will be discussed to see the effect on traffic
Horizontal Curve - Horizontal curve is a section or segment
accidents in the next section.
of the road that provides a transition from one straight road to
B. Influence of road infrastructure elements on traffic
the next straight road. Drivers will experience a centrifugal accidents
force as they pass through the horizontal curve segment which
Table I show the literature used to discuss the relationship
makes the driver must react to this force in order to pass the
between elements of road infrastructure and traffic accidents.
segment safely so that an accident will not take place [12]. In
Discussion of the influence of each element in causing the
their research, Hall & Hall [12] showed that the number of
accident will be explained later.
traffic accidents in the horizontal segment from 2003 to 2005
in North Carolina was 95,552 incidents for all types of roads. TABLE I
Banihashemi [13] also added that the effect of horizontal LITERATURE
curve on accidents is significant in the type of two lane Element Of Road Sub Elements of Road Literature
undivided urban arterials. In addition, the most common types Infrastructure Infrastructure
of accidents in the horizontal curve area are run off road Road Geometric Lane width [4]-[11]
crushes and head on crashes [14]. Horizontal curve [12]-[16] Vertical curve [15], [17]-[20]
Several attempts have been made to understand the effect of Road Surface [21]-[28]
horizontal curve characteristics on traffic accidents, and the Conditions
results found indicate that the geometric characteristics of the Roadside Hazard [29]-[38] Road Complementary Sidewalk [39]-[45]
horizontal curve that affect the occurrence of accidents are Building
radius, length, presence of adjacent curves, the presence of Bus bay [46]-[51]
transition curves and super elevation [15], [16]. Road Equipment Marking [52]-[58] Signs [59]-[63]
Some efforts that can be made to improve the safety of road
users related to geometric problems is performing good 148
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
geometric planning and design, improving harmful geometric 3) Road Side Hazard
on the existing road, providing advanced warning in horizontal
A roadside Hazard is any fixed object located on the side of
curves and combining it with road marking.
the road within a free area that can increase the severity of the
Vertical Curve - Vertical curves are used to provide a
crash [29]. In general, these road side hazards are
smooth transition between vertical tangents of different grade.
miscellaneous fixed objects, sign supports, tree groups, and
It is parabolic curve and is usually centered on the intersection
utility poles along the roadway [30]. This dangerous roadside
point of the vertical tangents [17]. In general, vertical curves
condition is very influential on the severity of run-off type
are divided into two: crash curves and sag curves [15]. In
road accident (ROR) [31, 34] because when the vehicle
relation to the issue of traffic accidents, several studies have
undergoes run off road accident, the driver who cannot control
shown statistically that vertical curve is one of the causes of
the vehicle is at risk of hitting trees or dangerous objects in accidents.
side of the road that can increase the level of accidental
Research conducted to understand the correlation between fatalities.
vertical curves and traffic accidents indicate that the geometric
In addition to some of the above studies, researches to see
characteristics of vertical curves such as steep gradient and
the effect of roadside hazards on the fatality rate of casualty
continuous long descent are very influential on the occurrence
victims have been done since a long time ago. In general,
of accidents [18]. This may be due to vehicles with very
these studies conclude that roadside hazard conditions such as
different climbing capabilities running together on slopes with
trees and others can aggravate the fatalities of traffic accidents
high steepness can affect the level of road capacity and the [35, 38].
risk of traffic accidents. In addition, the rate of traffic
Some of the recommended measures for dealing with this
accidents in the vertical curvature of the downhill direction is
problem are eliminating hazards, relocating hazard, modifying
higher than that of the uphill direction [19]. This may be due
hazard, closing hazard, or using the concept of clear zone
to the continuous downhill segment of the brake burning out
where road side can be driven and clean from hazard object
or losing effectiveness, so the length of longitudinal must be [29]. limited.
4) Road Complementary Building
Sharp crest and sag curves can affect traffic accidents in the
Sidewalk – Traffic activities are generally reserved for
same way as horizontal curves because of the short visibility
vehicular traffic and pedestrian traffic [39]. It is important to
of the crest curves and the far reaching distance of the sag
take pedestrian safety into consideration because the traffic
curves can increase the risk of accidents [15]. In addition to
process begins and ends by walking. One of the facilities of
the above factors, one of the vertical curved geometric
pedestrian infrastructure is sidewalk. In regard to pedestrian
characteristics affecting road safety is the width of the road
safety issues, sidewalks that no longer work well because of [20].
damage such as deterioration, pitting, spilling, scaling,
Thus, it can be said that the planning and design of vertical
cracking, and heaving make pedestrians difficult to use such
road curves that are not steep and long should be avoided in
facilities [40], in addition, blocked sidewalk can also make
order to improve the safety of road users passing through such
pedestrians enter the road body which may harm themselves vertical curve segment. and other road users [41].
2) Road Surface Conditions
Studies related to sidewalk functionality for the safety of
Road surface or pavement distress is a condition of road
road users have been undertaken by some earlier researchers
damage such as cracking, patching and potholes, surface
and, in general, those studies demonstrate well-designed [42,
deformation, and surface deflect [21]. This research discusses
43] and well maintained pedestrian facilities [40, 44, 45 ] so
the effect of pavement distress on the risk of accidents based
that pedestrians can use the sidewalk facility in accordance
on collective damage conditions of pavement surfaces. Road
with its function that will improve the safety of every road
surface condition is a matter of concern especially for traffic users.
safety aspect. Poor road surface conditions (large potholes and
Bus bay – The bus stop is part of an important
deep crack exists, discomfort at slow speeds) can lead to high
complementary road building in a transportation system. The
rate of accidental fatality, especially in high speed roads in
bus stop serves to load and unload passengers [46]. Generally,
single vehicle and multi vehicle accident types [22].
the bus stop is divided into two: Curb side bus stop and bus
Several studies [23]–[28] have been conducted to see the
bay [46, 47]. In relation to traffic safety, bus stops can affect
relationship between traffic accident and road surface
the high risk of accidents [48], especially for buses that are not
conditions. In general, the results of these studies indicate that separated by their own lane.
there is a close correlation between road surface conditions
Several studies have been conducted to see how the impact
and the frequency of traffic accidents. The recommendations
of these two bus stop types on accidents. Curb bus stops can
given by Chan et al [27] and Li et al [26 ] are a good
cause long bottlenecks and delays due to large bus dimensions
maintenance process on pavement surface conditions can
[46, 49], in addition, curb stops that are parallel to roads will
reduce the rate of traffic accidents. Furthermore, road should
cause large traffic conflicts due to vehicle maneuvering behind
be maintained under acceptable conditions above poor to keep
buses as well as buses pulling in and out [47]. Some of these
the safety and comfort of road users [22].
things cause the bus stop is very risky to traffic accidents.
Unlike the bus stop, the bus bay can disentangle the flow of 149
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
the vehicle better [50, 51], in addition, the number of conflict
C. Efforts to handle traffic accidents in terms of road
between bus and other vehicles on the mixed traffic is fewer infrastructure
so it is safer than the curb bus stop [47]. Some of these studies
Discussions about the influence of road infrastructure
suggest that the use of bus bays would be better for areas with
elements on the risk of accidents show that the road
high traffic volumes than bus curb in terms of road safety.
infrastructure has very significant effect on traffic accidents. 5) Road Equipment
The results are reinforced by the WHO in 2015 [1] in a report
Marking – Marking is defined as a sign on the surface of the
entitled Global Status Report of Road Safety indicating that
road or on the road surface that includes equipment or signs
the improvement of road infrastructure is a key mechanism for
that form longitudinal lines, transverse lines, slanting lines, the making of safer roads.
and symbols that serve to direct the flow of traffic and limit
The life cycle of road infrastructure is planning, design,
the area of the traffic [52]. In terms of the function of road
build, operate, decommission [70]. Road infrastructure safety
markings, it can be said that marking plays a significant role to
conditions should be handled at each stage of the cycle in
maintain the safety of road users, especially when the
order to maintain road users' safety and comfort. Road
visibility becomes the main factor.
Infrastructure Safety Management (RISM) is one of the road
One of the environmental influences on traffic accidents is
safety management efforts in terms of the road infrastructure
driving at night or in bad weather which results in a decrease [70, 72 .
] RSIM is a set of procedures that support decision-
in driver’s visibility [53]. When visibility is bad, good road
making by relevant road authorities to improve the safety of
marking conditions can improve road users' safety [54, 57 . ] In
road infrastructure networks that can be implemented at an
addition, other studies have also shown that the use of edge
early stage of the project life cycle that allows a proactive
lines in curve can improve the safety of road users [58].
approach on roads to be built as well as on existing roads that
Generally speaking, the conclusions drawn from these
allow a reactive approach [72]. In general, RSIM has many
studies indicate that road markings can help drivers feel more
tools that can be applied to improve the safety of road
comfortable and help drivers look at their lanes when passing
infrastructure. However, the most commonly used tool is Road
through areas with low visibility (night or rain).
Safety Audit (proactive) that begins in the planning, design,
Signs – Traffic signs are part of street equipment in the form
construction, and pre-opening and Road Safety Inspection
of symbols, letters, numbers, sentences, and/or combinations
(reactive) stages applied to existing roads for maintenance or
that serve as warnings, prohibitions, orders or directions for
renewal processes [70, 72]. Jamroz et al [70] also said that
road users [59]. Like road markings, the functions of signs are
Road Safety Audit can reduce 10-25% of casualties while road
critical to the safety of road users as they can provide safety audit is 1 - 20% .
warnings or clues to road conditions.
Not enough just by doing the above efforts to improve
The effect of signs on traffic safety such as variable
traffic safety. Bener et. al [73] in his research titled Strategy to
messages can affect driver behavior to decrease vehicle speed
Improve Road Safety in Developing Countries said that the
[60]. The use of road signs can also improve safety in the
difference between developed and developing countries is in
curve segment. The use of warning signs and speed limits may
the way reducing the number of accidents because road safety
decrease the speed of vehicle users as it approaches road
is more appreciated in developed countries and there is no way
curves [61]. This is supported by other studies showing that
to improve safety roads but adopting comprehensive
the use of chevron signals has a significant effect on the
preventive and handling strategies for the prevention of traffic
decrease in velocity in curved areas [62] and the addition of
accidents and this can be done through close collaboration
herring bones, chevron markers, and repeater arrow signs can
between traffic police, health, law, and transport authorities.
decrease and maintain vehicle position in the lane in the
Such results are consistent with the WHO’s 2015 Decade of curved segment [63].
Action (DoA) program [1]. The importance of government
Lights – In general, lights work to illuminate the street
factors in reducing the level of traffic accidents is shown in
environment at night. One of the road environmental factors
fig. 1. Bliss et al [74] discussed about the new road safety
that affect the occurrence of accidents is night at which
management tools that have been developed by World Bank
visibility becomes a major problem [64]. The risk of accidents
and ISO as shown in fig.1 which can be used as road safety
occurring with high severity is more prevalent at night [65].
work framework. In general, road safety management is
One of the efforts that can be made to reduce the number of
production process with three interrelated elements i.e.
traffic accidents at night is by using street lighting.
institutional management functions produce interventions that
The effect of street lighting on traffic accidents has been
produce results. This means that the seriousness and
done by several researchers and they show that the number of
commitment of the government in improving traffic safety is a
traffic accidents on roads without lights is higher than roads
key factor in handling traffic accidents. The government's
without street lighting, either on straight road segments [66,
direct role for road infrastructure safety, which is by making
67], curved road [67] as well as on the intersection segment
safety design standard, assuring compliance with these rules, [68, 69].
and methods to measure and rate the overall level of safety being achieved. 150
Advances in Engineering Research, volume 186
comprehensive traffic accidents handling strategy and
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