Chapter 11 - Organizational Structures and Their Impacts on Leadership môn Principle of Management | Trường Đại học Quốc tế, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

CHAPTER 11:
org chart: An organization chart or org chart is a diagram that displays a reporting or relationship hierarchy and structure.
informal structure:An informal organizational structure is an organizational structure without written guidelines for operating but is based on norms
and systems developed by members. So, there are no formal and written rules, procedures, or chain of command.
+advantages: Informal organizations are often formed outside the company’s official structure. However, it contributes to satisfying employees’ social
needs such as friendship, love, and support.
In addition, the bonds formed can strengthen relationships and collaboration within the company. They develop a sense of belonging to each other. So,
they can work together to achieve the company’s goals.
Other advantages of an informal organizational structure are:
Fast communication. Communication need not follow a chain of command. Instead, it just flows. Thus, it can be much faster than can be done in a formal organization.
Faster troubleshooting. For example, employees might congregate after normal business hours. They discuss their work and other non-work issues. They
give each other constructive feedback and find solutions to each other. So, they can solve it themselves without waiting for instructions from their superiors.
More adaptive. Management can get higher support when, for example, introducing change through a new target or strategy, which requires employees
to adapt. And approaching informal groups within the company is important to reduce employee resistance.
More creativity. Employees are freer to explore and express their creativity and ideas. And it may be difficult in the formal structure due to fewer
opportunities, possible punishment, or pessimism from being rejected by their superiors.
disadvantage:Hard to survive. Informal organizations are easy to form but also easy to break up. For example, when the leader leaves, there is a void.
And, it can cause the organization to disband because the person who replaces it doesn’t have the same qualities.
Interpersonal and intergroup conflicts. The incompatibility often arises between members and against other organizational groups. It can worsen
interpersonal relationships, resulting in chaos within the company.
Unsystematic work. There is no official structure. The organization does not divide the roles, authorities, responsibilities, and duties into several units.
Thus, it is more uncoordinated.
Low control. There are no official rules or ways to bind member compliance. It does not rely on the encouragement of rewards or punishments. Thus, it
is difficult to manage and control the organization.
Negative information. Rumors and misleading information often spread more quickly through informal organizational structures.
More concerned with individual interests. Although, the members have common interests. But, it is less important than individual interests. And, there is
no obligation for members to achieve common interests above individual interests.
traditional organization: An organizational structure defines how work gets delegated throughout an organization. A traditional organizational
structure follows a system in which power flows upward through the organization, and all employees follow a chain of command.
ex: The traditional organizational chart may look like a pyramid. The chief executive officer would sit at the top, and the layer underneath would consist
of department managers who report to the CEO and oversee the overall operations of their department. Next would be first-line managers, or supervisors,
who manage the daily operations of their department or teams and below are the non-management employees who report to them.
+Functional organizational structure: The organization divides its employees into groups based on their roles or specialties. For example, an
organization using this structure may have a finance, a marketing and a research-and-development department, with each department having specialty
groups within them who report to the department manager.
*advantages:When employees who have similar skills and experiences are grouped together, it makes production more efficient and of a higher quality.
Roles and tasks do not change very much so there is little time spent learning, and accountability is clear. Since the hierarchy is simple, employees know
the one manager they are to answer to, instead of multiple people. This streamlines communication and reduces confusion among employees. Employees
can feel confident about what they're doing because it is standardized. They are more likely to feel a loyalty to their department and the organization as a
whole. This increases morale and work ethic, as there is more job security. There is a clear path of growth for employees which provides motivation, and
they are more likely to be corporative with people in their department. A functional organizational structure provides a perfect environment for learning
for new employees (especially new college graduates) to be taught the real-world application of theoretical information.
+In a divisional structure, people are grouped together based on the product or service they provide, not the work they do. For example, a large
corporation such as General Electric has divisions for electronics, transportation, and aviation, each with its own team of accountants, marketers, etc. *Advantags:
Divisional structure has the following advantages:
(i) It helps the managers to develop varied skills related to a product and facilitates managerial development.
(ii) Fixation of responsibility and accountability is easy, as divisional heads are responsible for the profits and losses of their divisions.
(iii) With more initiative and flexibility, decisions are taken much faster in divisional structure.
(iv) It facilitates expansion and growth as new divisi on can be added without interrupting the existing operations.
Disadvantages of Divisional Structure
Divisional structure suffers from the following disadvantages:
(i) Conflict may arise between different divisions on allocation of funds and other resources.
(ii) There is a duplication of physical facilities and functions, which leads to increase in cost.
(iii) Greater autonomy to divisional heads may lead to misuse of authority.
(iv) Managers in each division focus on their own objectives, without thinking of the organisational goals.
+A matrix structure is a hybrid of the functional and divisional structures. It may involve employees reporting to different bosses depending on their
current assignment. For example, a software design specialist may report to her boss in IT, but she’s also brought onto specific projects because of her
expertise. When that happens, she will report to a different boss as long as that project continues.
Ad: improve decision-making, since there are two chains of command
help break down traditional 'silo' barriers
improve communication across the business
allow staff to apply their skills in different roles
help share best practice and ideas across teams
increase efficiencies due to sharing resources across departments D isad:
confusion regarding roles, responsibilities and priorities
divided loyalties between project teams
blurred lines of accountability
difficulties in coordinating tasks or functions
power struggle between the project manager and the functional manager
large overhead costs, on account of having multiple managers
+team structure:A team structure is a design or framework that defines the relationships between leadership, team responsibilities, activities, and each
team member. The team structure that you select will have a large impact on how team members collaborate and make efforts to see continuous
improvements for the company. example:A company has a marketing and operations team. The marketing team is concerned with improving the
marketing performance by devising comprehensive marketing campaigns. On the other hand, the operations team is tasked with improving
operational performance by optimizing operations and processes. These two teams work towards a common goal, i.e., to improve the company's overall performance.
Ad: -Promotes innovative ideas.Team-based structure promotes innovative ideas and suggestions. Because team members can freely determine the
strategies and procedures to follow when performing their responsibilities, they can introduce creative ideas
-Empowers team members.Team members in an organization with a team-based structure can maximize their skill set without worrying about restrictions from team leaders -Increases efficiency
-Promotes constructive competition.For example, a marketing team leader with multiple teams can set a weekly quota and a bonus for the team with the
highest quality leads. Doing this can encourage team members to increase their work output to qualify for the bonus. A constructive competition
can increase team members' productivity and expand the company.
-Introduces flexibility.For example, a team leader can assign a team member to the research team after working in the marketing team for a while. While
doing this expands team members' experiences and skill sets, it enables the company to create a team of generalized professionals who can
ensure consumer satisfaction in any project they complete.
network: For example, suppose an organization designs shirts for customers and has leaders who rather focus on design than production or retail. To
maintain control of their product, the organization may rent retail space through their network and purchase production capabilities from a
partner organization. While designing shirts, its partnership network can ensure it completes other essential operations.
disad:example:employee accountability might change with increased reliance on external vendors to complete essential operations. By ensuring internal
members remain responsible and accountable for tasks, an organization can retain control over its operational success. Clarifying which
professional makes final decisions can also help avoid conflict and ensure healthy interactions in the workplace.
Boundaryless :an example, Starbucks formed a highly successful partnership with PepsiCo to market its Frappuccino cold drinks. Starbucks has
immediate brand-name recognition in this cold coffee drink, but its desire to capture shelf space in supermarkets required marketing savvy and
experience that Starbucks did not possess at the time. By partnering with PepsiCo, Starbucks gained an important head start in the marketing and distribution of this product
virtual: Corning, the glass and ceramics maker, is one such firm known for making partnerships work to their advantage. Corning has partnered with
such firms as Siemens, Germany's electronics conglomeration, and Vitro, Mexico's largest glassmaker. Alliances are so important to Corning's
business strategy that the corporation has defined itself as a network of organizations. CHAPTER 14 I- The Nature of Leadership
Leadership is the process of inspiring others to work hard to accomplish important tasks. 1.
Leadership and power Leadership success begins with the ways a manager uses power to influence the behavior of other people. Power is the
ability to get someone else to do something you want done, or to make things happen the way you want.
-> “positive” face of power = foundation of effective leadership:
´ not using power with the desire to influence others for the sake of personal satisfaction.
✓ using power to influence others for the good of the group or organization as a whole. 2. Leadership and vision
“The job of a good leader is to articulate a vision that others are inspired to follow.”
- Leaders use their power associated with vision exceptionally well. Truly exceptional leaders turn the vision (a future that one hopes to create or
achieve to improve upon the present state of affairs) into accomplishments.
- Visionary leadership ((lBnh đDo cE tFm nhGn xa) - a leader who brings to the situation a clear, compelling sense of the future, and an understanding of
the actions needed to get there successfully: + Have a clear vision + Communicate the vision
+ Get people motivated and inspired to pursue the vision in their daily work
- Visionary leadership gives meaning to people’s work; it makes what they do seem worthy and valuable. “Effective leadership means having a lot of
people working toward a common goal.” If you can achieve that with no one caring who gets the credit, you’re going to accomplish a lot.
3. Leadership as service : Servant leadership: serve others and helping them fully use their talents so that organizations benefit society. In servant
leadership, the followers are most important than leaders A servant leader is “other-centered” and not “self- centered.”
A leader shifts the focus away from himself toward others -> empowerment: the process of allowing others to exercise power and achieve
influence within the organization.
- Servant leaders: + realize that power in organizations is not a “zero-sum” quantity -> reject the idea that for one person to gain power someone else
needs to give it up (k thJch kiKu cho ngLMi nNy dc mN ng kia mOt)
+ empower others by providing them with the information, responsibility, authority, and trust to make decisions and act independently
+ expect that people who are empowered will work hard so that the organization as a whole is more powerful in pursuing its cause or mission.
II- Leadership Traits and Behaviors 1. Leadership traits
Question—What personal traits and characteristics are associated with leadership success? Certain personal traits are common among the best leaders: ·
- Drive— have high energy, display initiative, and are tenacious. ·
- Self-confidence—trust themselves and have confidence in their abilities. ·
- Creativity—are creative and original in their thinking. ·
- Cognitive ability—have the intelligence to integrate and interpret information. ·
- Job-relevant knowledge—know their industry and its technical foundations. ·
- Motivation—enjoy influencing others to achieve shared goals. ·
- Flexibility—adapt to fit the needs of followers and the demands of situations. ·
- Honesty and integrity—are trustworthy; they are honest, predictable, and dependable. ·
2. Leadership behaviors: how leaders behave when dealing with followers ·
Question—How is leadership success affected by the ways leaders behave when engaging with followers? 2 dimensions of leadership behavior: ·
- Concern for the task to be accomplished/ initiating structure/ production-centered ·
+ plans and defines the work to be done + urges task completion
+ assigns task responsibilities + monitors performance results. + sets clear work standards
- Concern for the people doing the work/ consideration/ employee-centered.
+ acts with warmth and supportiveness toward followers + respects their feelings + is sensitive to their needs + shows trust
+ maintains good social relations
➔ Effective leaders should both high in concerns for both people and task.
In the Leadership Grid of Robert Blake and Jane Mouton:
Eg: Country Club manager (HighP, LowPr) pays much attention to the security and comfort of the employees. He hopes that this will increase
performance Những nhN lBnh đDo nNy chủ yếu sử dụng sức mDnh của phần thưởng đK duy trG kỷ luật vN khuyến khJch cả đội hoNn thNnh những mục tiê
chung. Trong khi đE, họ hFu nhL không cE khả năng sử dụng quyền hDn đK cLỡng chế hay trừng phDt, vG họ sợ rằng, sử dụng những quyền hDn đE cE thK
gây ảnh hLởng tiêu cực tới mối quan hệ với những thNnh viên khác trong đội.
Eg: In authority-obedience manager (LowP, HighPr), Authority Obedience Leadership is when a manager focuses entirely on production to an extreme
level while blatantly disregarding any need to focus on people and relationships. Authority Obedience Management is also called Produce or Perish
Management, which describes this poor leadership style even better.
Eg: Impoverished manager (LowP, LowPr) avoids getting into trouble. His main concern is not to be held responsible for any mistakes.
Eg: Team manager (HighP, HighPr): The manager encourages teamwork and commitment among employees. This leader shares decisions with team
members, empowers them, encourages participation, and supports teamwork. 3. Classic leadership styles
Leadership styles : the recurring patterns of behaviors exhibited by leaders.
- Autocratic style (authority-obedience manager) (độc tNi): emphasize task over people, retain authority and information, and act in a unilateral (đon
phLong), command-and-control fashion (ra lệnh kiKm soát) (nhiệm vụ cao, quan hệ không tốt
ROt giỏi lên lịch trGnh; họ yêu cFu nhân viên lNm những gG họ nEi mN không cFn hỏi hay thảo luận gG cả;
· Khi gặp khE khăn, họ thLMng tGm xem đE lN lỗi của ai hon lN tập trung tGm hiKu xem vOn đề lN gG vN lNm cách nNo đK ngăn chặn điều đE;
· Họ không chOp nhận những ý kiến phản đối(dù chỉ lN ý kiến sáng tDo của ngLMi khác). VG thế, các cOp dLới thLMng gặp khE khăn khi muốn đEng gEp hoặc phát triKn ý kiến.
- Human relations style (the country club manager): do just the opposite and emphasizes people over task.
- Laisser-faire style (the impoverished manager) (k xen vNo): show little concern for the task, let the group make decisions, and acts with a “do the best you
can and don’t bother me” attitude.
- Democratic style (“high-high” team manager) (dân chủ): is committed to both task and people, try to get things done while sharing information,
encourage participation in decision making, and otherwise help others develop their skills and capabilities
III-Contingency Approaches to Leadership
1. Fiedler’s contingency model
Question—Which leadership styles work best in the different types of situations that leaders face? Good leadership depends on a match or fit between a
person’s leadership style and situational demands. Leadership style is part of one’s personality and is dif . -> ficult to change requires both self-
awareness of one’s leadership style and a good understanding of the situational strengths and weaknesses of that style.
a) Understanding Leadership Styles and Situations - Leadership style
+ is measured on the least-preferred coworker scale (the LPC scale) -describing tendencies to behave either as a task-motivated leader (low LPC score) or
relationship-motivated leader (high LPC score). Leadership style + is hard to change.
- Leadership situations are assessed according to amount of control they offer the leader.
- 3 contingency variables measure situational control:
+ The quality of leader–member relations (good or poor): the degree to which the group supports the leader.
+ The degree of task structure (high or low): the extent to which task goals, procedures, and guidelines areclearly spelled out.
+ The amount of position power (strong or weak): the degree to which the position gives the leader power to reward and punish subordinates.
- 8 leadership situations that result from different combinations of 3 contingency variables (range from the most favorable situation of high control (good
LMR, high TS, strong PP) to the least favorable situation of low control (poor LMR, low TS, weak PP))
b) Matching Leadership Style and Situation
Both style work best when used in the right situation. - Task-motivated style—This leader will be most successful in either very favorable (high-control) or
very unfavorable (low-control) situations.
- Relationship-motivated style—This leader will be most successful in situations of moderate control. Eg: Assume you are the leader of a team of market researchers.
- The researchers seem highly supportive of you -> Good Leader-member relations
- Their job is clearly defined regarding what needs to be done -> high Task structure
- You have the authority to evaluate their performance and to make pay and promotion recommendations. -> Strong position power
➔ A high-control situation -> a task-motivated leader is the best fit
2. Hersey-Blanchard situational model
Question: How should leaders adjust their leadership styles according to the task readiness of followers?
- HerseyBlanchard situational leadership model suggests that successful leaders do adjust their styles wisely based on the task readiness (task maturity) of followers.
“Readiness”: how able and willing or confident followers are to perform required tasks. 4 leadership styles are based on:
+ Relational Behavior - the interpersonal relationship between leader and subordinate.
+ Task Behavior- concerns the amount of direction provided by the leader to subordinates - 4 leadership styles:
+ Telling: A high-task, low-relationship style
· Followers: unable and unwilling, or insecure
·Leader: give specific task directions and closely supervising work; make decision
➔ Work best: low-readiness situation
+ Selling: A high-task, high-relationship style
·Followers: unable, but willing or confident
Leader: explain task directions in a supportive and persuasive way/ persuade their followers about the importance of the task and how they should do it; coach
and keep followers motivated throughout the task.
➔ Work best: moderate-to-high-readiness situation
+ Participating: A low-task, high-relationship style:
· Followers: able but unwilling, or insecure -> have a higher level of capability and experience (than Telling and Selling) but lack confidence and commitment
·Leader: allow followers to take an active role in sharing ideas and making participative decisions on task directions
➔ Work best: low-to-moderate-readiness situation
+ Delegating: A low-task, low-relationship style
·Followers: able, willing, and confident -> can make most decisions and take responsibility for the outcomes, are highly experienced and can perform tasks
with minimal supervision; have the willingness and confidence to do so.
·Leader: allows the group to take responsibility for task decisions, can give empowerment to followers.
➔ Work best: high-readiness situation
Leadership styles should be adjusted as followers change over time. If the correct styles are used in lower-readiness situations, followers will “mature” and
grow in ability, willingness, and confidence => the leader become less directive and more participative as followers mature.
3. Path–goal theory (Robert House)
Question: How can leaders use alternative leadership styles to add value in different types of situations?
- It seeks the right fit between leadership style and situation:
+ Determine follower contigencies and evironmental contigencies · + Choose the leadership style ·
+ Focus on motivational elements to make value added to situation
- Unlike Fiedler, House believes that a leader can use all of the following leadership styles and actually shift back and forth among them:
+ Directive leadership (ch2 huy): let followers know what is expected; give directions on what to do and how; schedule work to be done; maintain definite
standards of performance; clarify the leader’s role in the group
+ Supportive leadership: do things to make work more pleasant; treat team members as equals; be friendly and approachable; show concern for the wellbeing of subordinates.
+ Achievement-oriented leadership: set challenging goals; expect the highest levels of performance; emphasize continuous improvement in performance;
display confidence in meeting high standards.
+ Participative leadership: involve team members in decision making; consult with them and asking for suggestions; use these suggestions when making decisions a) Path–Goal Contingencies
- The path–goal theory advises leaders to shift among the four styles in ways that best fit situational needs. The critical thing is to use the style that adds real
value to a situation by contributing something that is missing or needs strengthening.
Leaders should avoid redundancy and doing things that are already taken care of.
Eg: When team members are already expert and competent at their tasks, it is unnecessary and even dysfunctional for the leader to tell them how to do things.
- Some research-based guidance on how to contingently match leadership styles with situational characteristics:
+ When job assignments are unclear -> directive leadership ->
task objectives and expected re clarify wards.
+ When worker self-confidence is low -> supportive leadership -> increase confidence by emphasizing individual abilities and offering needed assistance.
+ When task challenge is insufficient in a job -> achievement-oriented leadership -> set goals and raise performance aspirations.
+ When performance incentives are poor -> participative leadership -> clarify individual needs and identify appropriate rewards.
b) Substitutes for Leadership: Substitutes for leadership: aspects of the work setting and the people involved that can reduce the need for active leader involvement:
- follower characteristics: ability, experience, and independence;
- task characteristics: the presence or absence of routine and the availability of feedback;
- organizational characteristics: clarity of plans and formalization of rules and procedures.
When these substitutes for leadership are present, managers are advised in true path–goal fashion to avoid duplicating them. Instead, they should concentrate
on making other and more important leadership contributions.
4. Leader–member exchange theory
Question—How do in-group and out-group dynamics influence leader–follower relationships?
- LMX theory notices the tendency of leaders to develop “special” relationships with some team members.
- Not everyone is treated the same by the leader:
+ In-group members: enjoy special and trusted high-exchange relationships with the leaders; get special rewards, assignments, privileges, and access to information.
➔ motivating and satisfying to receive such favorable treatments.
+ Out-group members: have a low-exchange relationship and may be marginalized, ignored; get fewer benefits.
➔ frustrating to receive fewer rewards, less information, and little or no special attention.
Eg: in work teams between leaders and certain members. Members of leaders’ in-groups get more positive performance evaluations and report higher levels of
job satisfaction. They’re more loyal as followers and less prone to turnover than are members of out-groups.
5. Leader–participation model (Vroom-Jago)
Question—How should leaders make decisions in different types of problem situations?
It links leadership success with use of alternative decisionmaking methods. Leaders are most effective when they make decisions in ways that best fit the problem situation.
A leader’s decision-making alternatives fall into three broad categories: authority, consultative, or group decisions: ·
- An authority decision is made by the leader and then communicated to the group. ·
- A consultativeis decision made by the leader after gathering information and advice from others. ·
- A group decision is made by the group with the leader’s support as a contributing member
A leader’s choice among alternative decision-making methods is governed by 3 factors:
(1) Decision quality: who has the information needed for problem solving;
(2) Decision acceptance: the importance of follower acceptance to the decision’s eventual implementation
(3) Decision time: the time available to make and implement the decision.
Because each decision method has its + and - in respect to these factors, effective leaders continually shift methods as they deal with daily problems and opportunities:
- Authority decisions work best when:
+ leaders have the expertise needed to solve the problem and are confident and acting alone.
+ followers are likely to accept and implement the leader’s decision
+ there is little or no time available for group discussion.
- Consultative and group decisions work best when:
+ the leader lacks the expertise and information needed to solve the problem.
+ the problem is unclear, follower acceptance is uncertain but necessary for implementation, and adequate time is available.
Five Ways for Leaders to Make Decisions
1. Decide alone—This is an authority decision; the manager decides how to solve the problem and communicates the decision to the group.
2. Consult individually—The manager makes the decision after sharing the problem and consulting individually with group members to get their suggestions.
3. Consult with group—The manager makes the decision after convening the group, sharing the problem, and consulting with everyone to get their suggestions.
4. Facilitate group—The manager convenes the group, shares the problem, and facilitates discussion to make a decision.
5. Delegate to group—The manager convenes the group and delegates authority to define the problem and make a decision.
Consultative and group decisions’ benefits
✓ improve decision quality by bringing more information to bear on the problem.
✓ improve decision acceptance as participants gain understanding and commitment.
✓ contribute to leadership development by allowing others to gain experience in the problem-solving process.
Consultative and group decisions’ negative:
´ Participative decision making is time consuming and leaders don’t always have extra time available.
´ When problems must be resolved immediately, the authority decision may be the only option.
IV- Personal Leadership Development
1. Charismatic and transformational leadership
A charismatic leader inspires followers in extraordinary ways.
Transformational leadership is inspirational and arouses extraordinary effort and performance
Transformational leaders use their personalities to inspire followers. They get them so highly excited about their jobs and organizational goals that they strive for
extraordinary performance accomplishments.
➔ The easiest way to spot a truly transformational leader is through his or her followers who are enthusiastic about the leader, loyal and devoted to his ideas, and
willing to work exceptionally hard to achieve leader’s vision.
Transformational leadership starts with a willingness to bring real emotion to the leader–follower relationship:
+ acting with integrity and living up to the trust of others
+ having a compelling vision of the future and the ability to communicate that vision in ways that cause others to work hard together to achieve it
Transformational leaders excel in part because of the strong sense of high aspiration, confidence, and contagious enthusiasm they bring to a situation.
2. Emotional intelligence and leadership: Emotional intelligence: an ability to understand emotions in yourself and others and use this understanding to handle
social relationships effectively -> an important influence on leadership success
A leader strong in emotional intelligence possesses:
+ Self-awareness: ability to understand our own moods and emotions, and to understand their impact on our work and on others.
+ Self-management (self-regulation): ability to think before we act and to control otherwise disruptive impulses.
+ Motivation and persistence: willing to work hard for reasons other than money and status.
+ Social awareness (empathy): ability to understand the emotions of others and to use this understanding to better relate to them.
+ Relationship management: ability to establish rapport with others and to build social capital through relationships and networks. 3. Gender and leadership
- Gender similarities hypothesis: males and females are very similar to one another in terms of psychological properties.
- both women and men can be equally effective as leaders.
- men and women are sometimes perceived as using somewhat different styles, and perhaps arriving at leadership success from different angles.
When men and women are perceived differently as leaders, the perceptions fit traditional stereotypes
- Men: “take-charge” leaders -> task-oriented, directive, and assertive while trying to get things done in traditional command-and-control ways.
- Women: “take-care” leaders -> behave in supportive and nurturing ways.
Female leaders are viewed as more participative; strong on motivating others, EI, persuading, fostering communication, listening to others, mentoring, and
supporting high-quality work than male leaders.
Women were rated more highly than men in all but one area of leadership— visioning because women are less directive as leaders, they aren’t perceived as visionaries.
Interactive leaders - strong communicators and act democratic, participative and inclusive with followers:
+ approach problems and decisions through teamwork, show respect for others, and share power and information.
+ use communication and involvement to build good interpersonal relations and seek consensus.
+ get things done more through personal power and good interpersonal relationships than through command- and-control use of position power.
Risk: Discussion of gender and leadership can fall prey to stereotypes -> set gender issues aside, accept the gender similarities hypothesis, and focus
instead on the notion of interactive leadership. 4. Moral leadership:
The concept of servant leadership fits with the concept of a moral leader and the notion of authentic leadership.
- Moral leadership: is always “good” and “right” by ethical standards
+ Anyone in a leadership position will ideally practice high ethical standards of behavior, try to build and maintain an ethical organizational culture; help and
require others to behave ethically in their work.
+ Moral leadership begins with personal integrity. Leading with integrity: acting in an honest, credible, and consistent manner in putting one’s values into action
-> earns the trust of followers. -> followers believe leaders are trustworthy -> behave in ways that live up to the leader’s expectations.
+ Transforming Leadership creates significant, revolutionary, change in social systems, while still based on integrity.
+ Risk: moral overconfidence - an overly positive view of one’s strength of character. Leaders with moral overconfidence may act unethically without
recognizing it or while justifying it by inappropriate rationalizations.
+ Eg: “I’m a good person, so I can’t be wrong”
- Authentic leadership: activates positive psychological states to achieve selfawareness & positive self-regulation.
+ Has a high level of self-awareness and a clear understanding of his or her personal values.
+ Acts consistent with those values, being honest and avoiding self-deceptions -> perceived by followers as genuine, gains their respect, and develops a capacity
to positively influence their behaviors.
+ The values and actions of authentic leaders create a positive ethical climate in their organizations.
5. Drucker’s “old-fashioned” leadership ·
+ Define and establish a sense of mission. ·
+ Set and keep the goals, priorities, and standards all clear and visible. ·
+ Accept leadership as a responsibility rather than a rank. ·
+ Surround themselves with talented people, aren’t afraid to develop strong and capable followers, ·
+ Not blame others when things go wrong ·
+ Earn and keep the trust of others. · + Keep the personal integrity ·
+ not based on being clever; it is based primarily on being consistent ·
Authority Obedience Leadership is when a manager focuses entirely on production to an extreme level while blatantly disregarding any need to focus on people
and relationships. Authority Obedience Management is also called Produce or Perish Management, which describes this poor leadership style even
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trGnh nNy. BDn hỏi ý kiến, đề xuOt vN sở thJch của họ vN bDn cân nhắc chúng khi đLa ra quyết định cuối cùng. BDn cũng cE thK ủy thác một số quyết định
cho nhEm của mGnh hoặc đK họ đDt đLợc sự đồng thuận với nhau. Phong cách ra quyết định cE sự tham gia dựa trên giả định rằng nhEm của bDn cE kiến
thức, kỹ năng vN hiKu biết cE giá trị cE thK cải thiện chOt lLợng vN sự chOp nhận của quyết định.
Phong cách ra quyết định cE sự tham gia cE thK cE lợi trong nhiều bối cảnh, đặc biệt khi quyết định phức tDp vN đòi hỏi nhiều quan điKm vN kiến thức, ảnh hLởng
trực tiếp đến nhEm vN họ cE quyền lợi nhOt định đối với kết quả, đòi hỏi sự sáng tDo vN độc đáo, cFn cE sự chOp thuận vN sự cống hiến của nhEm đK đLợ
thực hiện thNnh công, không nhDy cảm về thMi gian vN cE đủ thMi gian đK tham khảo ý kiến của nhEm. ·
Việc ra quyết định cE sự tham gia cE thK rOt cE lợi cho bDn, nhEm của bDn vN tổ chức. NE cE thK cải thiện chOt lLợng vN độ chJnh xác của quyết định bằ
cách dựa trên trJ tuệ vN kinh nghiệm tập thK của nhEmcủa bDn, tăng sự hNi lòng vN động lực bằng cách khiến họ cảm thOy cE giá trị vN đLợc trao quyền,
tăng cLMng sự tin tLởng vN hợp tác giữa các thNnh viên trong nhEm bằng cách học hỏi lẫn nhau, nuôi dLỡng văn hoá học tập vN đổi mới bằng cách
khuyến khJch tL duy sáng tDo vN thử nghiệm, đồng thMi tDo điều kiện thuận lợi cho việc triKn khai vN thực hiện quyết định bằng cách nhM nhEm của bDn
hỗ trợ vN tuân thủ quyết định mN họ đB giúp hGnh thNnh. ·
Hạn chế của phong cách ra quyết định có sự tham gia là gì?
Việc ra quyết định cE sự tham gia cE thK lN con dao hai lLỡi, tùy thuộc vNo bối cảnh vN đặc điKm của nhEm. NE cE thK lN một quá trGnh kéo dNi vN không hiệu
quả, vG nE đòi hỏi nhiều sự tL vOn vN trao đổi thông tin hon so với các phong cách ra quyết định khác. NgoNi ra, nE cE thK dẫn đến nhFm lẫn vN xung đột,
vG các ý kiến vN kỳ vọng khác nhau cE thK nảy sinh, đồng thMi cE thK phải giải quyết sự phản kháng vN bOt đồng quan điKm. Hon nữa, nE cE thK lNm su
yếu quyền lực vN uy tJn của ngLMi lBnh đDo, vG nhEm cE thK coi họ lN ngLMi thiếu quyết đoán hoặc yếu kém, hoặc trốn tránh trách nhiệm. Hon nữa, nE c
thK ảnh hLởng đến tJnh bảo mật vN an toNn của quyết định, vG nhEm cE thK rò rỉ hoặc lDm dụng thông tin nhDy cảm. Cuối cùng, nE cE thK dẫn đến các
quyết định dLới mức tối Lu hoặc phi đDo đức, vG nhEm cE thK bị ảnh hLởng bởi các thNnh kiến, cảm xúc hoặc tL lợi. CHAPTER 15 I- Perception Perception: ·
a major influence on individual behavior. ·
the process through which people receive and interpret information from the environment. ·
affects the impressions we form about ourselves, other people, and daily life experiences. ·
acts as a screen or filter through which information passes before we respond to it (we behave according to perceptions) ·
influenced by: cultural background, values, and other personal and situational circumstances ·
people can and do perceive the ➔
same people, things, or situations differently 1.
Perception and psychological contracts Psychological contract: ·
way in which perception influences individual behavior ·
the set of individual expectations about the employment relationship.
A healthy psychological contract offers a balance between individual contributions made to the organization and inducements received from the organization. ·
Contributions are work activities (effort, time, creativity, and loyalty) ·
Inducements are what the organization gives to the individual in exchange for these contributions (pay, fringe benefits, training and
opportunities for personal ;growth and advancement, and job security) ·
The ideal psychological contract: exchange of its values is perceived as fair.
➔ when the psychological contract is perceived as unbalanced or broken => Problems are likely to occur.
Eg: Individuals who sense they are getting less from the organization than they are giving, might try to compensate through lower performance, withdrawal, and poor citizenship. 2. Perception and attribution Attribution:
+ Way that perception influences individual behavior (Judging Others)
+ Our perception and judgment of others is significantly influenced by our assumptions of the other person’s internal state
+ The process of developing explanations for events.
Errors and biases in Attribution theory: - Describes how people try to explain the behavior of themselves and other people, while often making errors in the process:
Fundamental attribution error (lỗi qui kết co bản): occurs when someone’s performance problems are blamed more on internal failures of the individual than
external factors relating to the environment. -> blame pp first, not situation
Eg: A team leader might blame a person’s lack of job skills or laziness for the poor-quality work. -> the leader may resolve the problem through
training, reward or punishment, or even replacement.
Fundamental attribution error neglects possible external explanations for the poor-quality work (unrealistic time pressures or bad technology) -> opportunities
to improve these factors easily get missed
- Recognizes tendencies toward self-serving bias:
Self-serving bias (lỗi thiên vị bản thân): happens when individuals blame personal failures or problems on external causes while attributing successes to
internal causes -> “our success” but “their failure”
Eg: When“It’s not my fault!” error when something is wrong or “It was me, I did it!” error when things go right.
Eg: A student blame the lecturer’s inadequate lessons for his poor grade or claim his knowledge in the test that received a high grade.
Self-serving bias creates a false sense of confidence -> causes us to overlook opportunities for personal change and development.
3. Perception tendencies and distortions: A variety of perceptual tendencies and distortions also influence the way we communicate with and behave toward
one another. They include the use of stereotypes, halo effects, selective perception, and projection. And importantly, they can each cause us to lose
sight of important individual differences.
a) Stereotypes (lỗi rập khuôn) A stereotype
+ Occurs when someone is identified with a group or category, and then oversimplified attributes associated with the group or category are used to
describe the individual (making generalizations about an individual based on the group to which that person belongs)
+ We all make use of stereotypes (not always negative or ill-intended). But those based on gender, age, and race,.. can bias perceptions. Eg: Girls like pink,
dolls,.. while boys like legos, blue,..
Although employment barriers caused by gender stereotypes are falling, they can still cause even everyday behavior to be misconstrued:
- Scene: A man is talking with coworkers—stereotyped interpretation: he’s discussing a new project.
- Scene: A woman is talking with coworkers—stereotyped interpretation: she’s gossiping.
b) Halo Effects: A halo effect: occurs when one attribute is used to develop an overall impression of a person or situation (Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic)
Eg: When meeting someone new, the halo effect may cause one trait (a pleasant smile) to trigger overall positive perceptions.
Eg: A unique hairstyle or manner of dressing, by contrast, may trigger negative perceptions. When first come to bf’s house, if you wear sexy outfit, you might
be judged as not a good girl or impolite.
Halo effect errors often show up in performance evaluations. One factor (a person’s punctuality or pleasant personality,..) may become the “halo” for a positive
overall performance assessment even though a full set of facts would show it is not deserved.
c) Selective Perception (thFy bEi xem voi)
Selective perception: the tendency to single out for attention those aspects of a situation or person that reinforce one’s existing beliefs, values, or needs/ the
tendency to define problems from one’s own point of view. Information that makes us uncomfortable is screened out; comfortable information is
allowed in (People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes (chỉ nhGn thứ mN mGnh thJch,
không đK ý đến những yếu tố khác))
In organizations, pp from different departments (marketing and designing) see things from their own points of view and fail to recognize other points of view.
➔ Solution: gather and be open to inputs and opinions from many people => Reduce this tendency and avoid the negative impact of selective perception
d) Projection (suy bụng ta ra bụng ngLMi)
Projection: involves the assignment of personal attributes to other individuals. A classic projection error is to assume that other people share our needs, desires, and values.
Eg: You are the newly appointed manager for a team whose jobs you consider dull and routine but the workers enjoy the responsibilities of the workload. If
you give team members more responsibilities and challenge, this may not be a good decision as instead of designing jobs to best fit members’ needs,
you have designed the jobs to fit your needs. -> some people might be quite satisfied doing jobs that seem overly routine to you but others might not
➔ Solution: control through self-awareness and a willingness to communicate and empathize with other persons. => must try to see things through their eyes
4. Perception and impression management
Impressions can create both positive and negative perception
Impression management: the systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us.
It’s really a matter of routine in everyday life. We dress, talk, act, and surround ourselves with things that convey a desirable image to other persons. When
well done, impression management can help us to advance in jobs and careers, form relationships with people we admire, and even create pathways to group memberships.
Eg: Dress in ways that convey positive appeal, know when to “dress up” and when to “dress down.” Use words to flatter other people in ways that generate
positive feelings toward you. Make eye contact and smile when engaged in conversations so as to create a personal bond. Display a high level of
energy that is suggestive of lots of work commitment and initiative. II- Personality Personality:
- describe the profile of enduring characteristics that makes each of us unique. (as the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system)
- can have consequences for: + how she or he behaves
+ how that behavior is regarded by others.
1. Big five personality dimensions
- Extraversion (hLớng ngoDi)—the degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and assertive, gregarious.
➔ An extravert is comfortable and confident in interpersonal relationships
➔ An introvert is more withdrawn and reserved.
- Agreeableness (d‰ chịu)—the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.
➔ An agreeable person gets along well with others
➔ A disagreeable person is a source of conflict and discomfort for others.
- Conscientiousness (tận tâm)—the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, and careful, organized.
➔ A conscientious person focuses on what
can be accomplished and meets commitments
➔ A person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do too much and failing, or doing little. - Emotional stability (ổn định cảm xúc)—
the degree to which someone is relaxed, secure, and unworried, cal, selfconfident.
➔ A person who is emotionally stable is calm and confident
➔ A person lacking in emotional stability is anxious, nervous, and tense.
- Openness to experience—the degree to which someone is curious, open to new ideas, and imaginative.
➔ An open person is broad-minded, receptive to new things, and comfortable with change
➔ A person who lacks openness is narrowminded, has few interests, and is resistant to change.
A considerable body of literature links the personality dimensions of the Big Five model with individual behavior at work and in life overall.
Eg: + Conscientiousness -> job performance (conscientious people tend to be less risky,; more open to experience are more creative)
+ Extraversion -> management and sales (extraverts tend to be happier than introverts in their lives overall)
You can easily spot the Big Five personality traits in all of us (ourselves and people we socialize). Others form impressions of your personality, and respond to it. We do the same.
Eg: Managers often use personality judgments when making job assignments, building teams, and engaging in the daily social give-and-take of work.
2. Myers-Briggs personality type indicator The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator :
+ “types” personalities based on a questionnaire that probes into how people act or feel in various situations.
+ was developed by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs-Myers from foundations in the work of Carl Jung. Jung’s model of personality differences included 3 main distinctions:
- How people differ in the ways they relate with others (E or I) + by extraversion + by introversion
- How they differ in the ways they gather information (S or I)
+ by sensation (emphasizing details, facts, and routine)
+ by intuition (looking for the “big picture” and being willing to deal with various possibilities).
- How they differ in ways of evaluating information (T or F)
+ by thinking (using reason and analysis)
+ by feeling (responding to the feelings and desires of others)
Briggs and Briggs-Myers added a fourth dimension that describes how people differ in the ways they relate to the outside world— judging or perceiving. The 4 MBTI dimensions are:
Extraverted vs. introverted (E or I)—social interaction: whether a person tends toward being outgoing and sociable or shy and quiet.
- Sensing vs. intuitive (S or I)—gathering data: whether a person tends to focus on details or on the big picture in dealing with problems.
- Thinking vs. feeling (T or F)—decision making: whether a person tends to rely on logic or emotions in dealing with problems.
- Judging vs. perceiving (J or P)—work style: whether a person prefers order and control or acts with flexibility and spontaneity.
16 possible MBTI personality types result from combinations of 4 dimensions. A sample of MyersBriggs types are:
- ESTJ (extraverted, sensing, thinking, judging)—decisive, logical, and quick to dig in; common among managers.
- ENTJ (extraverted, intuitive, thinking, judging)—analytical, strategic, quick to take charge; common for leaders.
- ISJF (introverted, sensing, judging, feeling)—conscientious, considerate, and helpful; common among team players.
- INTJ (introverted, intuitive, thinking, judging)—insightful, free thinking, determined; common for visionaries
Such neat and understandable personality classifications have made the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator popular in management. People can be taught to
understand their own personality types, Eg as an ESTJ or ISJF, and to learn how to work better with people having different ones.
Question? BIG FIVE MODEL is better for work than MBTI test?
· Highly conscientious people develop more job knowledge, exert greater effort, and have better performance.
·Emotional stability is related to job satisfaction.
·Extroverts tend to be happier in their jobs and have good social skills.
·Open people are more creative and can be good leaders.
·Agreeable people are good in social settings.
3. Personal conception and emotional adjustment traits
- Personal conception trait: describes how people by personality tend to relate with the environment + locus of control + authoritarianism + Machiavellianism + self-monitoring
- Emotional adjustment trait: describes how they are inclined toward handling stress and uncomfortable situations. + Type A orientation
a) Locus of Control: Locus of control: the extent to which that some people believe they are in control of their destinies, while others believe that what
happens to them is beyond their control.
- “Internals”: more self-confident and accept responsibility for their own actions -> tend to be more satisfied and less alienated from their work
- “Externals”: more prone to blame others and outside forces for what happens to them. b) Authoritarianism b) Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism (độcđoán):
the degree to which a person defers to authority and accepts status differences.
- A person with an authoritarian personality tends to
+ act rigidly and be control-oriented when in a leadership capacity.
+ act subservient and comply with rules when in a follower capacity.
- The tendency of people with authoritarian personalities to obey can cause problems if they follow orders to the point of acting unethically or even illegally.
c) Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism (xảo quyệt): the extent to which someone is emotionally detached (biết tách rMi cảm xúc) and manipulative in using power.
- A person with a “highMach” personality is viewed as exploitative and unconcerned about others, often acting with the assumption that the end justifies themeans.
- A person with a “lowMach” personality would be deferential (t.n tr/ng) in allowing others to exert power over him or her. d) Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring (vị trJ kiKm soát): the degree to which someone is able to adjust and modify behavior in response to the immediate situation and to external factors.
- A person high in self-monitoring tends to be a learner, comfortable with feedback, + willing and able to change. (flexible in changing behavior from one
situation to the next -> hard to get a clear reading on where they stand)
- A person low in self-monitoring is predictable + tends to act consistently regardless of circumstances. e) Type A Personality
A Type A personality is high in achievement orientation, impatience, and perfectionism. Tendency of Type A persons:
- Bringing stress on themselves, even in situations others may find relatively stress free
- Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly.
- Acting impatient, hurrying others, put off by waiting.
- Doing, or trying to do, several things at once.
- Feeling guilty when relaxing.
- Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others.
- Cannot cope with leisure time
- Obsessed with achievement numbers III- Attitudes 1. What is an attitude?
Attitudes are predispositions to act in a certain way toward people and things in our environment. 3 components:
+ cognitive component: reflects a belief or an opinion Eg: I think the management course . is very interesting.
+ affective or emotional component: reflects a specific feeling. Eg: I very good about being a management major.
+ behavioral component: reflects an intention to behave in a manner consistent with the belief and feeling. Eg: I plan: “I am going to work hard and try to get
an A in all my management courses.”
Eg: My pay is very low (Cognitive). I’m angry over how little I am paid (Affective). Hence, I’m going to look for another jobs that pays better (Behavioral)
The intentions reflected in an attitude may or may not be confirmed in actual behavior.
Eg: Despite having a positive attitude and all good intentions in your management courses, the demands of family, friends, or leisure activities might use up
time you would otherwise devote to studying. You end up not working hard enough to get an A, and fail to live up to your original intentions.
Cognitive dissonance (bOt hòa trong nhận thức): the discomfort felt when one’s attitude and behavior are inconsistent. Possible results:
+ changing the attitude to fit the behavior (“Oh, I really don’t like management that much anyway”)
+ changing future behavior to fit the attitude (dropping out of intramural sports to get extra study time)
+ rationalizing to force the two to be compatible (“Management is an okay major, but being a manager also requires the experience I’m gaining in my extracurricular activities”) 2. What is job satisfaction?
Job satisfaction: the degree to which an individual feels positive or negative about various aspects of work. Job satisfaction facets most commonly discussedand measured:
- Work itself—Does the job offer responsibility, interest, challenge?
- Quality of supervision—Are task help and social support available?
- Coworkers—How much harmony, respect, friendliness exists? - Opportunities—Are there avenues for promotion, learning, growth?
- Pay—Is compensation, actual and perceived, fair and substantial?
- Work conditions—Do conditions offer comfort, safety, support?
- Security—Is the job and employment secure? a) Job Satisfaction Trends
- higher in small firms and lower in large ones
- run together with overall life satisfaction
- the general trend has been down for several years.
3. Job satisfaction and its outcomes
An effective manager helps others achieve both high performance and job satisfaction.
a) Job Satisfaction and Withdrawal Behaviors
A strong relationship exists between job satisfaction and the withdrawal behaviors as temporary absenteeism and actual job turnover:
- Absenteeism: workers who are more satisfied with their jobs are absent less often than those who are dissatisfied.
- Turnover: satisfied workers are more likely to stay and dissatisfied workers are more likely to quit their jobs. Absenteeism and turnover are costly:
- the recruitment and training needed to replace workers
- the productivity lost while new workers are learning how to perform up to expectations.
Changing retention rates up or down:
- results in magnified changes to corporate earnings.
- warns about the negative impact on corporate performance of declining employee loyalty and highturn over.
b) Job Satisfaction and Employee Engagement
Business profits rise with higher levels of employee engagement:
- a strong sense of belonging or connection with one’s job and employer
- being willing to help others, always trying to do something extra to improve performance
- feeling and speaking positively about the organization.
Reason: believing they had the opportunity to do the best every day, believing their opinions count, believing fellow workers are committed to quality, and
believing there is a direct connection between the work and the company’s mission.
Employee engagement: links with two other attitudes that influence individual behavior at work.
- Job involvement is the extent to which an individual feels dedicated to a job.
➔ Someone with high job involvement psychologically identifies with her or his job, and, would be expected to work beyond expectations to complete a special project.
- Organizational commitment: reflects the degree of loyalty an individual feels toward the organization
➔ Individuals with a high organizational commitment identify strongly with the organization and take pride in considering themselves a member.
=> strong emotional commitments to the organization (based on values and interests of others) are much more powerful in positively influencing
performance than are rational commitments (based primarily on pay and self- interests)
c) Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship
Organizational citizenship: a willingness to “go beyond the call of duty” or “go the extra mile” in one’s work
➔ linked with job satisfaction: A person who is a good organizational citizen does things that, although not required, help advance the performance of the organization.
Eg: a service worker goes to extraordinary lengths to take care of a customer/ a team member who is always willing to take on extra tasks/ an employee who
always volunteers to stay late at no pay just to make sure a key job gets done right.
d) Job Satisfaction and Job Performance
The job satisfaction and job performance relationship is complicated. 3 plausible arguments are: - A modest link between :
job satisfaction and performance
+ Making people happy is not really a surefire way to improve their job performance.
+ “Happy worker is a productive worker” -> When employees are happy, they feel invested in the organisation's goals and are more compelled to work.
Happiness increases productivity because it leads to higher engagement so happy employees are also more present.
+ The reality: some people will like their jobs, be very satisfied, and still will not perform very well (Depends on the complexity regarding individual differences)
- A link between performance and job satisfaction:
+ High-performing workers are likely to feel satisfied.
Highly productive employees help a company achieve its goals. Productivity boosts morale and creates a company culture of excellence, resulting in an improved workplace environment
+ “Productive worker is a happy worker”
+ The reality: Not everyone is likely to fit the model: Some may get their jobs done and meet high performance expectations while still not feeling satisfied.
➔ managers might be well advised to worry about losing “highly productive but unhappy” workers unless changes are made to increase their job
satisfaction (Given that job satisfaction is a good predictor of absenteeism and turnover)
- Job satisfaction and job performance most likely influence one another:
+ the relationship is also most likely to hold under certain “conditions,” particularly those related to rewards.
+ “job performance followed by rewards (that are valued and perceived as fair) create job satisfaction -> influence us to increase motivation to work hard
and achieve high performance in the future”
Do reward for productivity create satisfaction, influencing future performance
It's essential to recognize and reward staff for exceptional work if you want to keep top talent. Employees are likely to become more devoted and effective
when they receive rewards for their work. The organization's overall productivity and output may increase as a result. In this post, we'll talk about the
advantages of rewarding employees for exceptional work and how to do it.
IV- Emotions, Moods, and Stress 1. Emotions Emotional intelligence (EI)
- an important human skill for managers and an essential leadership capability
- an ability to understand emotions in ourselves and in others, and to use this understanding to manage relationships effectively. - we perform best when:
+ recognize and deal with emotions = avoid letting our emotions “get the better of us.’’
+ show restraint when the emotions of others are getting the better of them.” An emotion:
+ a strong feeling directed toward someone or something.
+ Linked with a specific cause/ clearly targeted
+ Tends to be brief or episodic/ short term
+ Specific effect on attitude, behavior + Might turn into a mood
Eg: positive emotion when an instructor congratulates on a fine presentation; But negative emotion when an instructor criticizes in front of the class.
+ Object of your emotion is the instructor
+ impact of the instructor’s behavior on your feelings and your response is quite different (breaking into a wide smile with the compliment, or making a nasty
side comment after the criticism)
2. Moods :Moods: more generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind that may persist for some time. + Hard to identify cause
+ Tends to linger, be long-lasting
+ General effect on attitude, behavior
+ Can be “negative” or “positive”
Eg: “I just feel lousy today and don’t have any energy. I’ve been down all week.” . Mood contagion (tâm trDng lây lan):
+ Is the spillover of one’s positive or negative moods onto others. (giận cá chém thớt)
+ Positive and negative emotions can be “contagious,” causing others to display similarly positive and negative moods
+ easily extend to one’s follower ( coworkers, teammates, family, friends)
Eg: When a leader’s mood contagion is positive, followers display more positive moods, report being more attracted to their leaders, and rate their leaders more highly
3. Stress Stress: a state of tension caused by extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities.
4. Sources of stress Stressors: things that cause stress.
- can influence our attitudes, emotions and moods, behavior, job performance, and even health. - Are from: + Non-Work situations:
·family events (the birth of a new child)
·economics (a sudden loss of extra income)
·personal affairs (a preoccupation with a bad relationship). + Work situations:
·long hours of work, excessive e-mails, unrealistic work deadlines, difficult bosses or coworkers,
unwelcome or unfamiliar work, and unrelenting change
· excessively high or low task demands, role conflicts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations, and too slow or too fast career progress.
➔ stressors from one space—work or nonwork—can spill over to affect the other. + Personality: type A Work-related stress syndrome:
- set up to fail—where the performance expectations are impossible or the support is totally inadequate to the task.
- mistaken identity—where the individual ends up in a job that doesn’t at all match talents, or that he simply doesn’t like.
a. Constructive and Destructive Stress
Achieving the right balance of stress for each person and situation is difficult:
- Constructive stress (eustress): Stress tJch cực
+ personally energizing and performance-enhancing.
+ encourages increased effort, stimulates creativity, and enhances diligence, while still not overwhelming the individual and causing negative outcomes.
+ Eg: Individuals with a Type A personality work long hours and is less satisfied with poor performance. -> Challenging task demands move them toward
ever-higher levels of task accomplishment. onwork stressors may cause them to work harder in anticipation of greater financial rewards.
- Destructive stress (distress): Stress tiêu cực + dysfunctional.
+ occurs when intense or longterm stress overloads and breaks down a person’s physical, mental systems.
+ lead to job burnout—a form of physical and mental exhaustion that can be personally incapacitating.
+ Lead to workplace rage —aggressive behavior toward coworkers and the work setting
+ Eg: Lost temper -> the unfortunate extremes are tragedies that result in physical harm to others.
Too much stress of destructive -> causes poor health:
+ reduces resistance to disease and increases the likelihood of physical and/or mental illness.
+ possible stressrelated health problems: hypertension, ulcers, substance abuse, overeating, depression, and muscle aches b. Stress Management
The best stress management strategy: prevent it from reaching excessive levels in the first place.
A top priority: personal wellness - the pursuit of one’s full potential through a personal health-promotion program.
+ [As an individual] taking personal responsibility for your physical and mental health through a disciplined approach to such things as smoking, alcoho
use, diet, exercise, and physical fitness.
+ [As an employer] setting up wellness programs and assistance plans to help employees follow through with wellness commitments to healthy living.
Stress can also be managed by taking actions to cope with and minimize the impact:
- personal and nonwork stressors:
+ Family difficulties may be relieved by a change in work Schedule
+ the anxiety they cause may be reduced by an understanding supervisor. - Work stress stressor:
+ by role clarification through frank and open communication between bosses and coworkers.
+ By redesigned jobs to eliminate poor fits between individual abilities and job demands.