Chapter 15: Individual Behavior môn Principle of Management | Trường Đại học Quốc tế, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

Chapter 15: Individual Behavior 1.Perception -
The process through which people receive, organize and interpret
information from the environment. -
People can perceive the same things or situations differently. -
People behave on the basis of their perceptions.
 Perception is how we take in and make sense of information around us.
Example: Two students may hear the same teacher's instructions, but 
one sees it as clear while the other finds it confusing.
 We behave based on our perceptions, not always on facts.
Example: If you think your coworker dislikes you, you might avoid 
them—even if it’s not true.
1. Perception and psychological contracts - Psychological contract A person-job fit begins here.
A set of expectations held by an individual about what will be given and
received in the employment relationship.
An ideal work situation is one with a fair psychological contract: Balance of
contributions and inducements.
Figure 15.1 Components in the psychological contract
 A psychological contract is the unwritten expectations between an employee and employer. 
Example: You expect fair pay, respect, and a safe work environment;
your employer expects you to be honest, punctual, and hardworking.
 A good psychological contract is balanced: 
You give your skills and time 
Your employer gives fair treatment and rewards
2. Perception and attribution -
Attribution: The process of developing explanations for events -
Fundamental attribution error: Occurs when observers blame another’s
performance failures or problems on internal factors rather than external factors. -
Self-serving bias: Occurs because individuals blame their personal
performance failures or problems on external factors and attribute
their successes to internal factors.
 Attribution is how we explain why things happen, especially about people’s behavior.
 Fundamental Attribution Error 
We wrongly blame others’ mistakes on who they are, not their situation. 
Example: Saying, “He failed because he’s lazy,” instead of, “Maybe
he’s going through something.” Self  -Serving Bias 
We blame failures on outside causes but take credit for success. 
Example: “I failed because the teacher was unfair,” vs. “I passed because I studied hard.”
3. Perception tendencies and distortions - Stereotypes
Occur when attributes commonly associated with a group are assigned to an
individual: Racial and ethnic; Gender; Ability; Age; Others? -
Halo effects: Occur when one attribute is used to develop an overall
impression of a person or situation. -
Selective perception: The tendency to define problems from one’s own point of view. -
Projection: The assignment of personal attributes to other individuals
These are common mental shortcuts that can lead to misjudgments: 
Stereotypes: Judging someone based on their group (gender, age, race).
oExample: Assuming older employees can’t use new tech. 
Halo Effect: One good trait colors everything.
oExample: Thinking someone is a great employee just because they dress well. 
Selective Perception: Only seeing what supports your view.
oExample: A manager only notices when an employee is late, not when they stay late. 
Projection: Assuming others think/feel like you.
oExample: Believing your teammate is upset because you are. - Impression management
The systematic attempt to influence how others perceive us: dress to convey
positive appeal; flatter others to generate positive feelings; when conversing,
make eye contact and smile; display a high level of energy.
This is how we try to shape how others see us.  Examples:
oDressing professionally at interviews
oSmiling and making eye contact in meetings
oComplimenting someone to build rapport
4. Perception and impression management 2. Personality -
The profile of characteristics that makes one person unique from others.
Personality is what makes you you. It includes your thoughts, behaviors, and emotional patterns.
1. Big five personality dimensions -
Extroversion: Being outgoing, sociable, and assertive -
Agreeableness: Being good-natured, cooperative, and trusting -
Conscientiousness: Being responsible, dependable, and careful -
Emotional stability: Being relaxed, secure, and unworried. -
Openness: Being curious, receptive to new things, and open to change
The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN):
1. Openness – Curious, creative, open to new ideas
oExample: Enjoys learning new skills or traveling to new places.
2. Conscientiousness – Organized, reliable, responsible
oExample: Always meets deadlines and pays attention to detail.
3. Extraversion – Outgoing, energetic, talkative
oExample: Loves group projects and networking events.
4. Agreeableness – Kind, cooperative, trusting
oExample: A team player who helps others and avoids conflict.
5. Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism) – Calm, secure, not easily upset
oExample: Handles stress well during busy periods.
2. Myers-Briggs personality type indicator
The MBTI describes how people prefer to think, interact, and make decisions,
based on four pairs of traits:
Myers-Briggs Dimensions of Personality Extraversion/ Sensation/ Thinking/ Judging/ Introversion Intuition Feeling Perceiving - how we relate - how we gather - how we - how we react to to others information evaluate the outside world information Dimension Meaning Examples Extraversion How we
Extraverts get energy from people (e.g., (E) vs. interact with
love group discussions); Introverts prefer Introversion (I) others
quiet and reflection (e.g., enjoy working Dimension Meaning Examples alone).
Sensing types focus on facts and details Sensation (S)
How we gather (e.g., rely on experience); Intuitive types
vs. Intuition (N) information
look at the big picture and possibilities (e.g., enjoy brainstorming).
Thinkers use logic (e.g., “What’s fair?”);
Thinking (T) vs. How we make Feelers consider emotions (e.g., “How will Feeling (F) decisions people feel?”).
Judging types like structure (e.g., prefer How we deal Judging (J) vs.
fixed schedules); Perceiving types are with the Perceiving (P)
flexible and spontaneous (e.g., prefer last- outside world minute options).
Example MBTI personality type: ISTJ = Introverted, Sensing, Thinking, Judging
— a detail-oriented, logical, and responsible person.
3. Personal conception and emotional adjustment traits -
Locus of control: The extent to which one believes that what happens
to them is within one’s control. -
Authoritarianism: The degree to which a person defers authority and accepts status differences -
Machiavellianism: The extent to which someone is emotionally
detached and manipulative in using power. -
Self-monitoring: The degree to which someone is able to adjust and
modify behavior in response to the external factors. -
Type A personality: Orientation toward extreme achievement, impatience, and perfectionism.
Figure 15.2 Common personality dimensions that influence human behavior at work.
These are traits that affect how you view the world and respond emotionally at work: Trait Meaning Example
Internal: “I make my own success” (e.g., Locus of
Belief about what studies hard for good grades). External: Control
controls your life “Luck or others control my fate” (e.g.,
blames failure on the teacher). Tendency to
High: Respects strict rules and leaders
Authoritarianis accept power
(e.g., follows boss without question). Low: m differences
More comfortable challenging authority.
Manipulative and High Mach: May lie or manipulate to get
Machiavellianis emotionally
ahead (e.g., politics over teamwork). Low m detached
Mach: More honest and cooperative. Ability to adapt
High: Can “read the room” and adjust
Self-Monitoring behavior to the
(e.g., changes tone in different meetings). situation
Low: More consistent but less adaptable. Highly
Always busy, impatient, stressed if idle Type A
competitive and (e.g., gets angry in slow trafÏc or with Personality perfectionist delays). 3. Attitudes 1. What is an attitude? -
Attitude: A predisposition to act in a certain way toward people and things in one’s environment -
Components of attitudes: Cognitive component; Affective or emotional
component; Behavioral component -
Cognitive dissonance: The discomfort a person feels when attitudes
and behavior are inconsistent. What is an Attitude?
An attitude is a person’s mental and emotional predisposition to respond
positively or negatively to people or situations.
Three Components of Attitudes:
1. Cognitive – What you think
Example: “My job has no growth opportunities.”
2. Affective (Emotional) – What you feel
Example: “I feel bored and frustrated at work.”
3. Behavioral – How you act
Example: “I’m thinking of quitting.” Cognitive Dissonance
The tension or discomfort when your actions don’t match your beliefs or attitudes.
Example: “I value honesty, but I lied to a customer.” → Leads to inner conflict.
2. Job satisfaction and its outcomes -
Job satisfaction :The degree to which an individual feels positively or
negatively about various aspects of work
The degree to which a person feels positively or negatively about different aspects of their job. -
Common aspects of job satisfaction:Work itself;Quality of
supervision;Coworkers;Opportunities;Pay;Work conditions;Security Common aspects of job satisfaction: Job satisfaction Work itself The degree to which an Quality of supervision individual feels positively or negatively Coworkers about various aspects of Opportunities work Pay Work conditions Security -
There is a strong and positive relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism and turnover. - Withdrawal behaviors
Key Outcomes Related to Job Satisfaction:  Absenteeism & Turnover:
Higher satisfaction typically means less absenteeism and turnover.  Withdrawal behaviors:
Negative attitudes can lead to behaviors like tardiness, reduced effort, or quitting. -
Satisfaction-related concepts having quality of work life implications … Employee engagement
Strong positive feeling about one’s job and the organization Job involvement
The extent to which an individual is dedicated to a job Organizational commitment
Loyalty of an individual to the organization Organizational citizenship
Willingness to do more than the minimum required
Is there a relationship between job satisfaction and performance?
–Are satisfied workers more productive?
–Are productive workers more satisfied?
–Do rewards for productivity create satisfaction, influencing future performance?
Answer: There is a relationship, but it’s complex and can be influenced by
many factors like rewards, recognition, and work environment.
4. Emotions, Moods, and Stress 1. Emotions -
Strong feelings directed toward someone or something.
Strong, focused feelings directed toward a person or event. 2. Moods -
Ability to understand emotions and manage relationships effectively. -
Generalized positive and negative feelings or states of mind. -
Mood contagion: Spillover of one’s positive or negative moods onto others.
-General positive or negative feelings that last longer than emotions.
-Important for understanding emotional intelligence and managing relationships.
-Mood contagion: Moods can spread from one person to others. 3. Stress -
A state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary
demands, constraints, or opportunities.
-A state of tension experienced when facing high demands or constraints. 4. Sources of stress - Things that cause stress -
Originate in work, personal, and nonwork situations. -
Have the potential to influence work attitudes, behavior, job performance, and health. -
Work factors as potential stressors: Excessively high or low task
demands; Role conflicts or ambiguities; Poor interpersonal
relationships; Too slow or too fast career progress. -
Work-related stress syndromes: Set up to fail; Mistaken identity. -
Nonwork factors as potential stressors: Family events; Economics; Personal affairs -
“Spill-over” effect on the stress an individual experiences at work Source Examples
Work-related High/low task demands; Role conflicts; Poor relationships;
Slow/fast career progress Nonwork-
related Family problems; Financial worries; Personal issues Stress
syndromes “Set up to fail,” “Mistaken identity” - Consequences of stress:
Constructive stress: Acts as a positive influence; Can be energizing and performance enhancing.
Destructive stress: Impairs performance; Breaks down a person’s physical
and mental systems; Can lead to job burnout and/or workplace rage. Type of Stress Effects Constructiv
eEnergizes and enhances performance
Destructive Reduces performance, causes burnout, anger issues
Figure 15.3 Potential negative consequences of a destructive job stress- burnout cycle -
Personal wellness: The pursuit of personal and mental potential though
a personal health-promotion program; A form of preventative stress
management; Enables people to be better prepared to deal with stress. Personal Wellness 
Proactive health and mental care to prepare for and reduce stress. 
Includes exercise, nutrition, sleep, and emotional health.