Chapter 16: Motivation Theory and Practice môn Principle of Management | Trường Đại học Quốc tế, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

Chapter 16: Motivation Theory and Practice Study Questions
1. How do individual needs drive motivation in the workplace?
2. What are the process-based theories that explain motivation?
3. How does reinforcement influence motivation?
4. How does job design impact employee motivation? Learning Dashboard
1. Individual Needs and Motivation
•Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow)
•ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
•Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
•Acquired Needs Theory (David McClelland)
2. Process Theories of Motivation
•Equity Theory (J. Stacy Adams)
•Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
•Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke) •Self-EfÏcacy Theory 3. Reinforcement Theory • Reinforcement Strategies • Positive Reinforcement • Punishment 4. Motivation and Job Design • Job Simplification • Job Enrichment • Alternative Work Schedules
Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation Definition of Motivation
Motivation refers to the internal forces that determine how much effort an indi-
vidual puts into their work, the direction of that effort, and how long they sustain
it. Essentially, it’s what drives someone to show up, work hard, and keep going. 1 Needs and Their Role
Needs are unfulfilled desires, both physical (e.g., food, safety) and psychological
(e.g., belonging, achievement). These needs shape how employees behave and
feel at work. When needs go unmet, they create tension, pushing people to act
in ways that satisfy those needs. Effective managers understand this and create
environments where employees’ needs can be met, boosting motivation. Example
At Google, employees are provided with free meals, on-site gyms, and nap pods
to address physiological and safety needs, while team-building activities and
recognition programs fulfill social and esteem needs, driving higher motivation.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow)
Definition: Maslow’s theory suggests that human needs are organized in a five-
level hierarchy, from basic (lower-order) to complex (higher-order). People are
motivated to satisfy lower-level needs before moving to higher ones. Explanation:
•Lower-Order Needs: These include physiological needs (food, water, shel-
ter), safety needs (security, stability), and social needs (belonging, relation-
ships). These focus on physical and social well-being.
•Higher-Order Needs: These include esteem needs (respect, recognition) and
self-actualization needs (personal growth, fulfilling potential). These drive psychological development.
•Deficit Principle: A satisfied need no longer motivates. For example, once an
employee feels secure in their job, safety stops being a motivator.
•Progression Principle: A higher-level need only becomes active once lower- level needs are satisfied.
Example: At Patagonia, employees receive fair wages and safe working con-
ditions (physiological and safety needs). The company also fosters a sense of
community through environmental initiatives (social needs) and offers leader-
ship development programs to support esteem and self-actualization, motivating
employees to align with the company’s mission. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Definition: ERG Theory condenses Maslow’s hierarchy into three need cate-
gories: Existence,Relatedness, and Growth. Explanation:
•Existence Needs: Cover basic survival needs like food, shelter, and job security
(similar to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs).
•Relatedness Needs: Focus on interpersonal relationships and belonging (sim-
ilar to Maslow’s social needs). 2
•Growth Needs: Involve personal development and achievement (similar to
esteem and self-actualization).
• Unlike Maslow, ERG suggests that multiple needs can motivate at once. The
frustration-regression principle means that if a higher-level need (e.g., growth)
is frustrated, a person may revert to seeking lower-level needs (e.g., existence).
Example: At Salesforce, employees receive competitive salaries and benefits
(existence needs), team-building events foster collaboration (relatedness needs),
and opportunities for skill development through training programs (growth needs)
keep employees motivated. If an employee feels stalled in career growth, they
may focus more on securing a higher salary (frustration-regression).
Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
Definition: Herzberg’s theory divides job factors into hygiene factors (which
prevent dissatisfaction) and satisfier factors (which create motivation). Explanation:
•Hygiene Factors: These are job context elements like salary, company policies,
and working conditions. If inadequate, they cause dissatisfaction, but improv-
ing them doesn’t necessarily motivate.
•Satisfier Factors: These are job content elements like achievement, recogni-
tion, and responsibility. These directly drive motivation when present.
• The theory emphasizes that fixing hygiene factors (e.g., raising pay) won’t mo-
tivate employees unless satisfier factors (e.g., meaningful work) are also ad- dressed.
Example: At Zappos, competitive salaries and a safe workplace (hygiene fac-
tors) prevent dissatisfaction. However, their focus on empowering employees
to make decisions and recognizing their contributions (satisfier factors) creates
high motivation, leading to exceptional customer service.
Acquired Needs Theory (David McClelland)
Definition: McClelland’s theory states that people develop specific needs through
life experiences, influencing their workplace behavior. These needs are Achieve-
ment (nAch),Power (nPower), and AfÏliation (nAff). Explanation:
•Need for Achievement (nAch): People with high nAch want to excel, solve
problems, and achieve challenging goals. They prefer tasks with clear feed-
back and personal responsibility.
•Need for Power (nPower): Those with high nPower seek to influence or con-
trol others. They may pursue personal power (control for self-interest) or so-
cial power (leading for group benefit). They thrive in roles with authority and recognition.
•Need for AfÏliation (nAff): Individuals with high nAff prioritize strong in-
terpersonal relationships and social approval, preferring collaborative work 3 environments.
Example: At Tesla, engineers with high nAch are motivated by challenging projects
like developing new battery technology, receiving clear performance feedback.
Managers with high nPower thrive in leadership roles, driving innovation, while
team-oriented employees with high nAff excel in collaborative design teams, fos- tering camaraderie.
Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation
Definition: Process theories explain how individuals make decisions about their
work effort based on preferences, rewards, and expected outcomes. They focus
on the cognitive processes behind motivation. Equity Theory (J. Stacy Adams)
Definition: Equity theory suggests that employees compare their work inputs
(effort, skills) and outputs (rewards, recognition) to those of others. Perceived
fairness drives motivation, while inequity causes discomfort. Explanation:
• Employees assess fairness by comparing their input-output ratio to a referent (e.g., a coworker).
•Over-reward inequity: When employees feel overpaid compared to others, they may feel guilty.
•Under-reward inequity: When employees feel underpaid, they may feel an-
gry and reduce effort or seek change.
• To restore equity, employees might adjust their inputs (work less), seek more
rewards, change their referent, or leave the situation.
Example: At Microsoft, if a software engineer discovers a peer with similar
skills earns more for the same work, they may feel under-rewarded and reduce
effort or negotiate a raise. Microsoft addresses this through transparent pay
scales and performance reviews to ensure perceived equity.
Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
Definition: Expectancy theory states that motivation depends on three factors:
expectancy (belief that effort leads to performance), instrumentality (belief
that performance leads to rewards), and valence (value placed on rewards). Explanation:
•Expectancy: Employees must believe their effort will result in successful per- formance.
•Instrumentality: They must trust that good performance will lead to rewards (e.g., bonuses, promotions).
•Valence: The rewards must be meaningful to the individual. 4
• The formula is: Motivation = Expectancy ×Instrumentality ×Valence. If
any factor is low, motivation decreases.
Example: At Amazon, employees are motivated to meet high performance tar-
gets (expectancy) because they know strong performance leads to bonuses or
stock options (instrumentality). However, if an employee doesn’t value the re-
ward (low valence), motivation may wane. Amazon uses training and clear re-
ward systems to boost all three factors. Managerial Implications:
• To increase expectancy: Hire skilled workers, train them, and clarify goals.
• To increase instrumentality: Communicate how performance leads to rewards.
• To increase valence: Align rewards with employee desires (e.g., flexibility for work-life balance).
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Definition: This theory posits that specific, challenging goals, when accepted by
employees, enhance motivation by providing direction and clarity. Explanation: • Goals motivate by:
–Directing effort toward specific tasks. –Clarifying expectations.
–Providing feedback benchmarks.
–Encouraging self-management.
• Effective goals are specific, challenging, accepted by employees, prioritized,
and supported by feedback and rewards.
• Participation in goal-setting (e.g., through Management by Objectives, or MBO)
increases commitment and motivation.
Example: At Nike, sales teams are given specific targets, like increasing store
revenue by 10% in a quarter. These challenging goals, paired with regular per-
formance feedback and bonuses for achievement, motivate employees to inno- vate sales strategies. Self-EfÏcacy Theory
Definition: Self-efÏcacy is an individual’s belief in their ability to perform a task,
directly impacting motivation through higher expectancy. Explanation:
• High self-efÏcacy leads to greater effort and persistence, as employees feel con- fident in achieving goals.
• Self-efÏcacy is built through:
– Enactive Mastery: Gaining confidence from past successes. 5
– Vicarious Modeling: Learning by watching others succeed.
– Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement from managers or peers.
– Emotional Arousal: High energy or excitement about a task.
Example: At Deloitte, new consultants build self-efÏcacy through training pro-
grams (enactive mastery), observing senior consultants (vicarious modeling),
receiving mentorship (verbal persuasion), and tackling exciting client projects
(emotional arousal), boosting their motivation to perform.
Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory
Definition: Reinforcement theory focuses on how external consequences shape
behavior, based on B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning and the law of effect (be-
haviors followed by positive outcomes are repeated; those with negative out- comes are not).
Operant Conditioning Strategies
1. Positive Reinforcement: Providing a desirable consequence (e.g., praise,
bonus) to increase a behavior’s frequency.
2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable consequence (e.g., re-
ducing oversight) to encourage a behavior.
3. Punishment: Introducing an unpleasant consequence (e.g., reprimand) to reduce an undesired behavior.
4. Extinction: Removing a pleasant consequence (e.g., stopping praise) to de- crease a behavior.
Example: At Starbucks, baristas receive bonuses for excellent customer ser-
vice (positive reinforcement) and are relieved of extra shifts if they consistently
meet targets (negative reinforcement). Chronic lateness may lead to warnings
(punishment), and ignoring poor performance stops rewarding it (extinction).
Guidelines for Positive Reinforcement
• Reward only desired behaviors (law of contingent reinforcement).
• Deliver rewards promptly (law of immediate reinforcement).
• Clearly define desired behaviors, offer diverse rewards, and tailor them to in- dividual preferences.
Example:Adobe uses a “Check-in” system where managers provide immediate
feedback and rewards (e.g., gift cards) for meeting project milestones, reinforc-
ing desired behaviors like timely delivery. 6 Schedules of Reinforcement
•Continuous Reinforcement: Rewarding every instance of a behavior (fast
learning but less sustainable).
•Intermittent Reinforcement: Rewarding periodically (slower learning but more sustainable).
•Shaping: Gradually reinforcing behaviors that approximate the desired out- come.
Example: At Walmart, new employees receive praise for every correct transac-
tion during training (continuous reinforcement). Once proficient, they receive
periodic bonuses for sustained performance (intermittent reinforcement). Guidelines for Punishment
• Specify what’s wrong and right.
• Match punishment to the behavior. • Administer privately.
• Ensure immediacy and consistency.
Example: At IBM, if an employee violates data security protocols, they receive
a private warning specifying the issue and corrective actions, maintaining fair- ness and clarity.
Takeaway 4: Motivation and Job Design
Definition: Job design involves structuring tasks to enhance performance and
satisfaction, directly impacting motivation. Job Simplification
Definition: Standardizing tasks to make them highly specialized and repetitive, often automated. Explanation:
•Advantages: Simplifies training, supervision, and replacement; workers de-
velop expertise in repetitive tasks.
•Disadvantages: Can lead to boredom, reduced productivity, and high turnover.
Example: At Ford Motor Company, assembly line workers perform repetitive
tasks (e.g., attaching a specific part). While efÏcient, this can cause disengage-
ment, so Ford introduced cross-training to reduce monotony.
Job Rotation and Job Enlargement Definition:
•Job Rotation: Shifting workers between different jobs to increase task variety. 7
•Job Enlargement: Combining multiple tasks into one role (horizontal loading).
Explanation: Both approaches expand job scope, reducing boredom and in- creasing engagement.
Example: At Toyota, workers rotate between assembly tasks (e.g., installing
seats, then dashboards) to maintain interest and flexibility, while some roles
combine tasks like quality checks and assembly for greater variety. Job Enrichment
Definition: Increasing job depth by adding responsibilities like planning and
decision-making, typically done by supervisors (vertical loading).
Explanation: Enriched jobs enhance motivation through greater autonomy and
meaningfulness, based on the Job Characteristics Model:
•Skill Variety: Using diverse skills.
•Task Identity: Completing a whole task.
•Task Significance: Impacting others.
•Autonomy: Freedom in how work is done.
•Feedback: Clear performance information.
Example: At Whole Foods, team members are empowered to make decisions
about product displays and inventory (autonomy), work on complete tasks like
stocking shelves (task identity), and receive regular performance feedback, in- creasing motivation.
How to Improve Core Job Characteristics: • Combine tasks for variety.
• Form natural work units for identity.
• Establish client relationships for significance. • Open feedback channels.
• Practice vertical loading for autonomy. Alternative Work Schedules 1. Flexible Working Hours:
• Employees choose their work hours around a core time.
•Benefits: Greater autonomy, better work-life balance, improved morale.
•Example: At Deloitte, consultants use flextime to schedule around per-
sonal commitments, boosting satisfaction. 2. Compressed Workweek:
• Full-time work in fewer than five days (e.g., four 10-hour days).
•Benefits: More leisure time, lower commuting costs. 8
•Disadvantages: Fatigue, scheduling issues.
•Example:Chick-fil-A offers some employees a 4-day workweek, increas-
ing satisfaction but requiring careful scheduling to avoid burnout. 3. Job Sharing:
• Two or more people split one full-time role.
•Benefits: Attracts talent unable to work full-time.
•Example: At KPMG, two accountants may share a client portfolio, allow-
ing work-life balance while maintaining productivity. 4. Telecommuting:
• Working remotely for part of the time, using hoteling or virtual ofÏces.
•Benefits: Freedom from commuting, increased productivity, flexibility.
•Disadvantages: Isolation, reduced visibility for promotions, supervision challenges.
•Example:GitLab, a fully remote company, allows employees to work
from anywhere, boosting productivity but requiring strong communica-
tion tools to combat isolation.
5. Contingency and Part-Time Work:
• Part-time or temporary workers supplement full-time staff.
•Implications: Offers flexibility for employers but may reduce worker commitment.
•Example:Uber uses part-time drivers as contingency workers, provid-
ing scheduling flexibility but often with lower pay and fewer benefits, impacting motivation. Summary
This chapter covers motivation through:
1. Individual Needs: Maslow’s hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG, Herzberg’s two-
factor, and McClelland’s acquired needs explain how unmet desires drive behavior.
2. Process Theories: Equity, expectancy, goal-setting, and self-efÏcacy theo-
ries describe how cognitive processes influence work choices.
3. Reinforcement: Positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and
extinction shape behavior through consequences.
4. Job Design: Simplification, rotation, enrichment, and alternative sched-
ules enhance motivation by aligning tasks with employee needs.
By understanding and applying these theories, managers can create motivating
work environments tailored to individual and organizational goals. 9