Chapter 2 - Exploring Sociological Research | Môn Sociology - Trường Đại học Quốc tế, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

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Did you ever wonder how researchers study behaviors that are private and personal?
Sociologists Patricia Adler and Peter Adler went on the Internet to study people who
injure themselves. Read on to see what they learned.
Self-injury has existed just needed something to where I could vent and rage without
having for nearly all of recorded his- any outward signs so that anybody could tell anything
was wrong.” He tory. Although it has been turned to cutting to assuage his feelings of sadness. . . .
defined and regarded in vari- Over the years that we were actively involved in the self-
injury cyber ous ways over time, its rise in world, it took several twists and turns. The
earliest of the sites we disthe 1990s and early 2000s covered probably originated during
the late 1990s. At that time, most has taken a specific, although sites were privately owned
and unmonitored. Participants often used contested, form and mean- the term self-
mutilation, and it was not uncommon to find graphic ing. We focus in this book on details
and pictures of injuries. Sites had names such as “bleed me,” the deliberate, nonsuicidal
“ruin your life,” “bioetchings,” “bleeding to ease the pain,” “cut it out,” destruction of one’s
own body and “gallery of pain.” Their main purpose, it appeared, was to offer feltissue,
incorporating practices lowship to self-harmers so they would know they were not alone.
. . . such as self-cutting, burning, Over the course of our research we also collected tens of
thousands (in branding, scratching, picking the range of 30,000-40,000) of Internet
messages and emails, including at skin. . . . those posted publicly and those written to and by us. In 2006 we enlisted
Our goal here is to discuss the form of this latest incarnation of self- the aid of three student coders to help us sort and
analyze the emails and injury, now often regarded as a typical postings from the Internet groups. At this time behavior among
adolescents, describing Mike was a scruffy-looking college we were working on one paper, and the students and
analyzing it through the voices and helped us find posts and emails pertinent to our from the perspective of those who prac-
student who always wore a stocking cap. specific focus. We repeated this process again tice it. . . . He started
cutting and burning himself in 2008 with ten more student coders, expand-
Many self-injurers were driven to this between the ages of 12 and 14. ing the project greatly. Each student took one
behavior by nothing more serious than set of emails we had collected from a group, the minor stresses typically associated
with normal adolescence. . . . board, or chat room and poured [sic] through the years of postings we had People cited upsets
with their friends, romantic relationships, and assembled. We divided the students into groups of five and met with each family
members as having led them to self-injury. Mike was a scruffy- group biweekly. At each session the students submitted notes
and memos looking college student who always wore a stocking cap. He started about the material they had scanned, and we
brainstormed for sociologicutting and burning himself between the ages of 12 and 14. When cal codes, categories, concepts, trends, and patterns.
he was in high school Mike’s girlfriend broke up with him, leaving him
devastated. He reflected, “Yeah, I thought every relationship was the (P. Adler and P. Adler 2011:1, 43, 44, 54–55) Additional information
about this excerpt end of the world. I kept getting further and further depressed, and I can be found on the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/schaeferbrief10e. 30 lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 31 Defining the Problem
What Is the Scientific Method? lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008
FIGURE 2-1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically
evaluate the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological research. lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 33 Reviewing the Literature
It seems reasonable that these graduates of Fort Bethold
Community College on the Fort Bethold Reservation, North
Dakota, will earn more income than high school graduates. How
would you go about testing that hypothesis? Formulating the Hypothesis lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 34 lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 35 MAPPING LIFE NATIONWIDE
FIGURE 2-2 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AND HOUSEHOLD INCOME IN THE UNITED STATES
Collecting and Analyzing Data Selecting the Sample lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 36
Ensuring Validity and Reliability
FIGURE 2-3 CAUSAL LOGIC
Identify two or three dependent variables that might be
influenced by this independent variable: number of alcoholic drinks ingested. lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 37 Developing the Conclusion
Controlling for Other Factors
FIGURE 2-4 IMPACT OF A COLLEGE Supporting Hypotheses EDUCATION ON INCOME Think about It
What kinds of knowledge and skills do people with an
associate’s degree or higher possess, compared to those with a
high school education or less? Why would employers value
those kinds of knowledge and skills?
Forty-four percent of people with a high school diploma or less (left)
earn under $25,000 a year, while only 29 percent earn $40,000 or
more. In contrast, only 21 percent of those with an associate’s degree
or higher (right) earn less than $25,000, while 61 percent earn $40,000 or more. In Summary: The Scientific Method lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 38
households fill out and return the form or answer face-to-face questions from a census
worker. Other industrial countries have much less success than the United States.
Because of strong concerns about privacy, for example, the Netherlands has not had a
door-to-door census since 1971.
With detailed knowledge of three out of every four households in the United States,
TREND census workers can use statistical techniques to estimate data for the other quarter.
Still, officials have long recognized that the count is more likely to miss certain groups
of people than others. This tendency, called undercounting, applies especially to low- Overcounting and
income people, non-English speakers, and the homeless. Those who have good reason Undercounting
to avoid census workers, such as illegal immigrants and families who crowd together in
inadequate housing, also swell the ranks of the undercounted. in the U.S. Census
Recently, however, concern has been growing about overcounting, or the tendency to Every 10 years, as
count some people twice. College students who live at school rather than at home with required by the
their parents, “snowbirds” (retirees who move to warmer climes during the winter), Constitution, the U.S.
active military personnel, and children whose parents share their custody all are likely Think about It
What would constitute a less biased question for a survey on smoking? government conducts a to be overcounted. census to determine
Census officials estimate that the 2000 Census overcounted the nation’s how many
population by 11.6 million people. To correct the problem, the Bureau sought to congressional
identify people who had been listed twice, and by 2010 had reduced the overcount representatives
to just 36,000. In the 2010 Census, the undercount—that is, people who were not each state is allowed.
counted—was about 16 million, similar to the proportion of the population that was Besides determining the
missed in 2000. Blacks, Hispanics, young children, and renters were more likely than states’ political power,
others to be overlooked. Given the importance of accuracy in the nation’s these
population count, officials will continue to address these issues in the 2020 Census. data are used for a myriad of other purposes, from distributing federal aid to
education to researching the market for breakfast cereal.
Despite concerns about government
intrusion into people’s private lives, U.S.
citizens are relatively compliant with
the head count. About three-quarters of lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 39 thinking CRITICALLY What might be the effects of a college education on society as a whole? Think of some potential effects on the family, government, and the economy. M ajor Research Designs Surveys lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 RESEARCH TODAY
2-1 Surveying Cell Phone Users
“Can you hear me now?” This question, familiar households do not have health insurance, com- Researchers are taking steps to stay
abreast to cell phone callers everywhere, could be used pared to 14 percent of landline households. of technological change. For
example, they are to characterize a debate among researchers in Unfortunately, surveying cell phone users making allowances for
people who communicate sociology. Until recently, calling people on the has its own problems. In general, cell phone without any
kind of telephone, using their pertelephone was a common way for survey tak- users are more likely than landline users to sonal
computers and the Internet. And by drawers to reach a broad range of people. Though screen incoming calls or ignore them. ing on
historical data that suggest what kinds of not everyone owns a telephone—particularly not people tend to adopt other wireless
technologies, low-income people—researchers managed to As of 2012, 32 percent of researchers are projecting which people
are likely account for that relatively small portion of the households in the United States to abandon their landlines in the near future. population in other ways.
could be reached only by cell phone,
However, the fact that many people now LET’S DISCUSS
and the proportion was rising.
have a cell phone but no landline presents a
1. Are you a cell phone–only user? If so, do
serious methodological problem to scholars And studies show that because cell phone users you generally accept calls from
unknown who depend on surveys and public opinion poll- often take calls while they are involved in other numbers? Aside from
underestimating ing. As of 2012, 32 percent of households in activities, they are much more likely to break off a certain health
problems and distorting the the United States could be reached only by cell call midsurvey than someone who is speaking on degree
of support for certain politicians, phone, and the proportion was rising. Among a landline. Thus, it takes an average of nine calls
what other problems might result from those under 30, the abandonment of landlines to a working cell phone number to complete
one excluding cell phone–only users from was nearly three times as common. These cell survey, compared to five calls to a working land- survey research?
phone subscribers are more likely than others line number. Furthermore, federal law requires 2. Apply what you have just learned
to the to be male and to earn a modest income. that calls to cell phones be hand-dialed; the use task of surveying Internet users. Which of
Scholars are reluctant to rely only on of automatic dialers, a standard tool of survey the problems that arise during telephone l
andline-based surveys. They are concerned firms, is illegal. Survey takers have also found that surveys might also arise during
Internet about the potential for misleading results, such calling cell phone numbers means they will reach surveys? Might Internet
surveys involve as underestimates of the prevalence of health a higher proportion of nonadults than when call- some unique
problems? problems. For example, 38 percent of cell ing landline numbers. Finally, there are some ethiphone–only households have
a binge drinker, cal issues involved in randomly dialing cell phone Blumberg and Luke 2007; David Brown 2009;
Sources: compared to only 17 percent of landline
users, who may be driving a motor vehicle or oper- Goldman 2012; Harrisinteractive 2008; Keeter and households.
And 28 percent of cell phone–only ating dangerous machinery when they answer.
Kennedy 2006; Lavrakas et al. 2007.
TABLE 2-1 TOP REASONS WHY MEN AND WOMEN HAD SEX lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 I was attracted to the person 1 1 It feels good 2 3
I wanted to experience the physical pleasure 3 2 It’s fun 4 8
I wanted to show my affection to the person 5 4
I was sexually aroused and wanted the release 6 6 I was “horny” 7 7
I wanted to express my love for the person 8 5 I wanted to achieve an orgasm 9 14 I wanted to please my partner 10 11 I realized I was in love 17 9
I was “in the heat of the moment” 13 10 37 Ethnography lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 42
Sergeant Britt Damon, a social scientist on the U.S. Army Human
Terrain Team, chats with Afghani children during a search
operation. The participation of social scientists in the Army lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008
program, which some see as a violation of scholarly
detachment, has proved controversial.
Carnegie Mellon University’s Data Truck lets researchers go where
their subjects are—from nightclubs to marathon races. Equipped
with the latest technology, the truck allows social scientists to enter
the responses to their community surveys into their databases on
site. It also gives them access to online social networks in the area,
and even lets them videotape street activity.
How would you go about setting up an experiment to
measure the effect of TV watching on schoolchildren’s grades? Use of Existing Sources Experiments lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 44 39 lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 RESEARCH TODAY
highlight your features and your outfit.”
Needless Scout badge is called the Rocks
Rock badge. to say, such badges are not
2-2 Gender Messages in Scouting
offered in the Boy Scouts. The most nearly
Nearly 5 million children in the
comparable one in the Boy Scout United States participate in
handbook is the Fitness badge, which
scouting. What gender messages
includes activities such as keeping a food do these young people receive
diary and warning a relative about the during their time as Scouts? dangers of drugs and alcohol.
A key form of guidance not just Denny acknowledges that
for Scouts but for their leaders is
Scout handbooks are not the only
the Scout’s handbook. Sociologist influence on gender roles in Kathleen scouting. How are gender
Denny did a content analysis of the Boy messages communicated in
Scouts’ Webelos Handbook and person during troop or pack
the Junior Girl Scout Handbook. meetings and ceremonies, for
Focusing specifically on material example? How do parents
for Scouts in the fourth and fifth
reinforce or mediate the gender grades, she found that both
themes in scouting? And how do
handbooks delivered traditional
children adjust to, accept, or rebel gender messages. Girl Scout
against the gender messages they
activities were more likely than receive as Boy Scout activities to be
Scouts? Denny’s research suggests communal or other-oriented;
the need for further research on gender
Boy Scout activities were more likely to Merit badges for boys (left) and girls (right)
socialization in the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts. be solo undertakings.
Boy Scout badges more often have career- LET’S DISCUSS
oriented names— Engineer, Craftsman,
1. Did you participate in scouting as a
Scientist; The most gender-specific aspect Girl Scout badge names have less of
child? If so, were you aware of the
a career of the Girl Scout handbook is the orientation—Sky Search instead of
gender messages you were receiving Astronomer,
as part of the scouting experience? Car Care instead of Mechanic. How did you react?
subjects of the badges themselves. The most gender-specific aspect of the Girl
2. If you were a Scout leader yourself,
Scout handbook is the subjects of the
what kind of gender model would
badges Denny found that the names of merit badges themselves. Many refer to
you attempt to be? How would you
stereotypically femialso conveyed traditional gender messages. nine activities: Caring become that kind of model?
for Children, Looking Your Girl Scout badge names often include puns Best, Sew Simple.
Sources: Boy Scouts of America 2010; K. Denny
Besides personal hygiene or other forms of word play; Boy Scout badges and healthy
2011; Girl Scouts of the USA 2001:39; World
eating, the Looking Your Best badge do not. For example, the Boy Scout badge includes
Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts 2011.
an “Accessory Party,” which requires for studying rocks and geology is called sim- Scouts
to “experiment to see how accessories ply the Geologist badge; the comparable Girl
use your sociological imagination
Imagine you are a legislator or government
policymaker working on a complex social problem.
What might happen if you were to base your decision on faulty research? lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008
TABLE 2-2 EXISTING SOURCES USED IN 41 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH 46 E thics of Research 40 Census data Crime statistics
Birth, death, marriage, divorce, and health statistics Newspapers and periodicals
Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters
Records and archival material of religious organizations, corporations, and other organizations Transcripts of radio programs
Videotapes of motion pictures and television programs
Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms Song lyrics
Scientific records (such as patent applications)
Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)
Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on specific legislative Confidentiality proposals
Attendance records for public events
Videos of social protests and rallies Literature, including folklore Think about It
Which of these sources do you access to collect information? lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008
TABLE 2-3 MAJOR RESEARCH DESIGNS Survey Questionnaires
Yields information about specific Can be expensive and Interviews issues time-consuming Ethnography Observation
Yields detailed information about Involves months if not years
specific groups or organizations of labor-intensive data Experiment Deliberate manipulation of Yields direct measures of
Ethical limitations on the degree people’s social behavior people’s behavior
to which subjects’ behavior can be manipulated Existing sources/
Analysis of census or health data Cost-efficiency Limited to data collected for Secondary analysis
Analysis of films or TV commercials some other purpose Conflict of Interest
A floating containment barrier (or boom) encircles the Exxon oil
tanker Valdez after its grounding on a reef off the coast of Alaska.
Exxon was found negligent in the environmental disaster and was
ordered to pay $5.3 billion for the cleanup. On appeal, the company
managed to reduce the damages to $500 million based on academic lOMoAR cPSD| 58097008 48
research that it had funded—research that some scholars believe
involved a conflict of interest. TAKING SOCIOLOGY TO WORK
Dave Eberbach, Associate Director, Iowa Institute for Community Alliances
Dave Eberbach is a people person who has been working with
computers most of his career. In 1994 he was hired as a research
coordinator by the United Way of Central Iowa. In that position he
helped to create and implement Iowa’s Homeless Management
Information System (HMIS), which coordinates data on housing
and homeless service providers. Eberbach also collaborated with Value Neutrality
the Human Service Planning Alliance to create and maintain a
“data warehouse” of social statistics from diverse sources. As a
research coordinator, he found that the data helped him to identify
small pockets of poverty that were generally hidden in state and county statistics.
Today, Eberbach works at the Iowa Institute for Community
Alliances, a small nonprofit organization that offers computerized
client management and on-site program monitoring to homeless
and housing service providers. As Associate Director, Eberbach
oversees a staff of seven and meets with clients who are working
to improve service delivery to vulnerable people. “As fewer
resources are being spent on social programs, it has been
imperative to make sure that the focus of programs is on client
success, not maintaining systems,” he explains.