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Đề án chuyên ngành Marketing - Tài liệu tham khảo | Đại học Hoa Sen
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Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics
Ethically minded consumer behaviour in Vietnam: An analysis of cultural values,
personal values, attitudinal factors and demographics Tri D. Le, Tai Anh Kieu, Article information: To cite this document:
Tri D. Le, Tai Anh Kieu, (2019) "Ethically minded consumer behaviour in Vietnam: An analysis of
cultural values, personal values, attitudinal factors and demographics", Asia Pacific Journal of
Marketing and Logistics, https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-12-2017-0344
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www.emeraldinsight.com/1355-5855.htm Ethically minded consumer EMCB in Vietnam behaviour in Vietnam
An analysis of cultural values, personal values,
attitudinal factors and demographics Tri D. Le Received 29 December 2017
School of Business, International University, VNU-HCM, Revised 7 June 2018 Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam and 19 October 2018 19 December 2018
School of Economics, Finance and Marketing, RMIT University, Accepted 4 January 2019 Melbourne, Australia, and Tai Anh Kieu
Department of Research Administration – International Relations,
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Abstract
Purpose – Consumer ethics in Asia has attracted attention from marketing scholars and practitioners.
Ethical beliefs and judgements have been predominantly investigated within this area. Recent research
argues for consumer ethics to be measured in terms of behaviours rather than attitudinal judgements, due to a At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
potential pitfall of attitudinal scales, which researchers often refer to as an attitude–behaviour gap.
Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to examine the dimensions of ethically minded consumer behaviour
(EMCB) in an Asian emerging market context.
Design/methodology/approach – A survey of 316 Vietnamese consumers was conducted to investigate
their ethically minded behaviours.
Findings – The SEM analyses reveal a significant impact of long-term orientation on EMCB, whereas
spirituality has no impact. Collectivism, attitude to ethically minded consumption and subjective norms are
found to influence the dimensions of EMCB. Age, income and job levels have effects on EMCB dimensions,
but gender, surprisingly, has no effect.
Practical implications – The study can be beneficial to businesses and policy makers in Vietnam or any similar
Asian markets, especially in encouraging people to engage with ethical consumption. Furthermore, it provides
practitioners in Vietnam with a measurement instrument that can be used to profile and segment consumers.
Originality/value – This is among the first studies utilising and examining EMCB, especially in Vietnam
where research into consumer ethics is scant. It contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a greater
understanding of the impact of personal characteristics and cultural environment on consumer ethics, being
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measured by the EMCB scale which has taken into account the consumption choices. Furthermore, this study
adds further validation to the EMCB scale.
Keywords Long-term orientation, Consumer ethics, Spirituality, Attitude, Emerging markets, Collectivism,
Ethical consumption, Subjective norms, Love of money Paper type Research paper Introduction
Research into consumer ethics appears to have proliferated since the development of Muncy
and Vitell’s (1992) Consumer Ethics Scale (CES). The CES is conceptualised as consumers’
ethical judgments, which are the extent to which the consumer perceives ethically
questionable practices as being either right or wrong (ethical or unethical) across situations
(Muncy and Vitell, 1992; Vitell and Muncy, 1992). Nonetheless, attitudinal scales such as
ethical judgments may not reliably predict ethical consumption (Carrigan and Attalla, 2001;
Carrington et al., 2014; Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, 2016). For example, the Nielsen
Global Survey of Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability found that 26 per cent Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics
of consumers indicated that they wanted more eco-friendly products but only 10 per cent © Emerald Publishing Limited 1355-5855
said that they purchased such products (Nielsen, 2015a). To address this disparity, well DOI 10.1108/APJML-12-2017-0344 APJML
documented as the attitude–behaviour gap, some researchers argue for consumer ethics to
be assessed in terms of behaviours rather than attitudinal judgements (Carrigan et al., 2011;
Carrington et al., 2016; Caruana et al., 2016). In the light of this, Sudbury-Riley and
Kohlbacher (2016) recently developed an “ethically minded consumer behaviour” (EMCB)
scale, based on Roberts’ (1993, 1995) prior work on socially responsible consumer behaviour,
to measure consumption choices with regard to environmental issues and corporate social
responsibility. The EMCB scale comprises five separate dimensions capturing a variety of
ecological/social and purchase/boycott behaviours (Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, 2016).
On the other hand, prior research has largely drawn on Hunt and Vitell’s (1986, 1993)
general theory of marketing ethics to investigate the impact of selected personal and
cultural characteristics in driving ethical judgements, e.g., Lu and Lu (2010), Arli and
Tjiptono (2014) and Vitell et al. (2016). It is noteworthy that research in different research
contexts has found conflicting results and some even contradicting the theory, with regard
to the role of religion and consumers’ views of material goods or money (Arli and Tjiptono,
2014; Lu and Lu, 2010; Vitell et al., 2016). The question that arises which motivates this
study is whether and to what extent well-examined antecedents of ethical judgements in
prior research would also associate with the EMCB dimensions. Therefore, this study, by
extending the work of Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher (2016) and prior research concerning
ethical judgments, aims to investigate the roles of selected antecedent constructs
representing personal characteristics and cultural environment in shaping EMCB
dimensions, in lieu of ethical judgements.
In this sense, the study attempts to integrate the perspectives of both Fishbein and At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
Ajzen’s (2010) reasoned action approach and Hunt and Vitell’s (1986, 1993) general theory of
marketing ethics. Specifically, the present study concurs with Sudbury-Riley and
Kohlbacher’s (2016) research in considering the reasoned action approach/theory of
planned behaviour as useful in explaining ethical behaviour; and, as such, includes two
important variables of that theoretical approach: attitude towards ethical consumption, and
subjective norms. Besides, the present research extends previous studies, such as Lu and Lu
(2010), Arli and Tjiptono (2014) and Vitell et al. (2016), to investigate the roles of selected
cultural and personal predictors of consumer ethics (such as love of money, spirituality,
long-term orientation, collectivism and demographics) in shaping ethical consumption,
represented by EMCB dimensions. Furthermore, given the novel nature of the EMCB scale,
this study focusses on the direct associations between EMCB dimensions and selected
cultural and personal predictors in a particular Asian developing market.
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Despite the growing potential of Asia, the extant literature shows limited research into
consumer ethics, let alone for the emerging markets in the region (Arli and Tjiptono, 2014;
Lu and Lu, 2010). Research into consumer ethics so far focusses much on developed markets
such as North America and Europe, which currently account a larger share of ethical
products (Nielsen, 2015a). Nonetheless, it is worth noting that nowadays consumers in
developing markets also become more interested in seeking out and paying more for ethical
products (Euromonitor, 2017; Nielsen, 2015a). More particularly, the present research is
conducted in Vietnam, as this country presents a meaningful research context to investigate
EMCB and provides a different consumer profile from the Western cultures and
Islam-dominant contexts in previous studies. Vietnam is a sizeable, fast-growing Asian
emerging market which has transitioned from centrally planned to market economy just
over two decades ago. The country has a population exceeding 92m, with a growing middle
class (World Bank, 2017), a collectivist culture and a coexistence of several religions, with
many people claiming “no religion” despite their religious practices (Shultz, 2012). A survey
by Nielsen (2015b) found that Vietnamese consumers are most socially conscious, as they
came top in the Asia-Pacific region in stating a willingness to pay for products from
companies that care about environmental and social values.
This study is one of the first few studies utilising and examining EMCB and provides a EMCB in
greater understanding of the impact of selected antecedents on EMCB. Furthermore, Vietnam
evidence from the emerging market context of Vietnam, where research into consumer
ethics is scant, also contributes to furthering theoretical advances and maintaining their
managerial relevance. Insights from the study can benefit businesses and policy makers in
encouraging consumers to engage with ethical consumption. Literature review
Consumer ethics and theoretical foundations
Much research into consumer ethics in the past three decades has been based on the general
theory of marketing ethics by Hunt and Vitell (1986, 1993) and centred around the concept of
ethical judgments. The theory conceptualises a general framework explicating broad sets of
factors and mechanisms leading to one’s ethical behaviour (Hunt and Vitell, 1986, 1993).
Researchers subsequently argue that only two sets of factors are relevant to the
consumption context: cultural and personal characteristics (Vitell et al., 2016). It is
noteworthy that at the heart of that general framework is the concept of one’s ethical
judgements, which are evaluations of behaviour but also include implicitly environmental
norms and personal characteristics in ethically questionable situations (Hunt and Vitell,
1986). Subsequently, several researchers embrace ethical judgements as a hallmark concept
of consumer ethics (Hunt and Vitell, 1986, 1993; Muncy and Vitell, 1992; Vitell and Muncy,
1992). In this vein, the Muncy–Vitell CES was developed to measure consumers’ judgments
of certain behaviours across a range of ethical issues/situations (Muncy and Vitell, 1992; At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
Vitell and Muncy, 1992). The original CES scale included four dimensions, each consisting of
actions that consumers perceived as being wrong, labelled as “actively benefiting” from
illegal activities, “passively benefiting” at the seller’s expense, “deceptive, legal practices”
and “no harm activities” (Muncy and Vitell, 1992; Vitell and Muncy, 1992). A fifth dimension,
labelled as “doing good” and reflected by positive actions relating to good deeds and
recycling, was added later (Vitell and Muncy, 2005).
There are problems with the focus on ethical judgments. First, several studies have
produced mixed evidence for the CES dimensions across cultures, challenging the validity of
the scale (Polonsky et al., 2001). For example, consumers in Austria appear to be more
tolerant to questionable behaviours (excepting for actively benefiting from illegal activities)
(Rawwas, 1996). Some CES dimensions such as “deceptive, legal practices” and “no harm
activities” are found indeed to be ambiguous, because actions grouped under these
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dimensions are considered acceptable in some cultures but harmful by others (e.g. copying a
CD) (Vitell et al., 2016). Second, the inherently higher abstraction level of the concept of
ethical judgments inhibits the understanding of the relative roles of behavioural beliefs (e.g.
attitude towards behaviour) and normative beliefs (e.g. subjective norms) separately, as in
Fishbein and Ajzen’s (2010) reasoned action approach. This makes it difficult for marketers
to design interventions to impact intentions and behaviour. Third, research in practice has
shown the potentially serious disparity between consumers’ attitude towards ethics and
actual purchasing behaviour (Nielsen, 2015a, b). Therefore, it has been contended that
ethical judgments are insufficient to predict ethical consumer behaviour (De Pelsmacker
et al., 2005; Fukukawa and Ennew, 2010). Nonetheless, research into consumer ethics so far
has fallen short of considering actual behaviour, which could be shaped by situational
constraints (Hunt and Vitell, 1986).
Some researchers suggest that the attitude–behaviour gap can be explained in the light
of Fishbein’s and Ajzen’s (2010) reasoned action approach, which encapsulates the theory
of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and its extension, the theory of planned
behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). The reasoned action approach posits that not only attitude
towards behaviour but also subjective norms and perceived behaviour control can impact APJML
intentions and behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2010). Accordingly, empirical research
applying the reasoned action approach in an ethical consumption context demonstrates
that attitudes alone, or scales designed solely to measure attitude, are poor predictors of
ethical consumer behaviours (Shaw et al., 2000; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006, 2008).
Indeed, the extent to which consumers act on their ethical beliefs and their rationales for
inaction are less consistent across cultures (Auger et al., 2007). Therefore, it is also
proposed that research may need to take into account actual behaviour rather than
attitude (Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, 2016). In line with this, Sudbury-Riley and
Kohlbacher (2016) develop the EMCB scale.
Drawing upon the extant literature on consumer ethics, this study attempts to apply
the perspectives of the reasoned action approach and the general theory of
marketing ethics as theoretical foundations. The two theoretical approaches are indeed
consistent with each other. In their general theory of marketing ethics, Hunt and Vitell
(1986) claimed that ethical judgments have impact on intentions and, subsequently,
behaviour, a key mechanism of the reasoned action approach (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2010).
In addition, with the extension of the theory of reasoned action to make the theory of
planned behaviour, Ajzen (1991) suggested that the theory of planned behaviour
framework is open to include the additional predictors of behaviour. Therefore, besides
attitude towards ethical consumption behaviour and subjective norms, the present study
follows prior research that has drawn on Hunt–Vitell’s theory to identify predictors of
consumer ethics, and extends these to investigate the roles of selected cultural
and personal predictors of consumer ethics (such as love of money, spirituality, long-term At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
orientation, collectivism and demographics) in influencing EMCB dimensions. This is
of particular importance, as marketers need to know how to influence ethical consumer
behaviour (Carrington et al., 2010).
Given the novel nature of the EMCB scale, this study focusses only on the improved
understanding of predictors of EMCB dimensions, and is not concerned with the processes
linking consumer values and EMCB dimensions through intervening variables. Although
consumers values or characteristics may be argued to influence the formation of an
individual’s attitude, which can then impact behaviour (Grunert and Juhl, 1995; Hunt and
Vitell, 1986; Poortinga et al., 2004; Yeon Kim and Chung, 2011), most previous empirical
studies have investigated the direct associations between consumer ethics, measured as
consumer judgements, and selected exogenous antecedents. Accordingly, this study
examines the direct associations between cultural and personal values and EMCB
dimensions. These concepts are further discussed in the sections below.
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Ethically minded consumer behaviour
The EMCB scale follows the 26-item scale developed by Roberts and Lilien (1993) to
measure socially responsible consumer behaviour, which taps into both ecological
and social issues as a starting point. Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher (2016) classified
five distinctive dimensions of EMCB relative to ecological and social issues: Eco–Buy,
Eco–Boycott, Recycle, CSR–Boycott and Pay–More. The first dimension, Eco–Buy, refers
to the deliberate selection of environmentally friendly products over other alternatives
(e.g. “When there is a choice, I always choose the product that contributes to the least
amount of environmental damage”). The second dimension, Eco–Boycott, represents the
refusal to purchase the products which are harmful to the environment (e.g. “If I
understand the potential damage to the environment that some products can cause, I do
not purchase those products”). The third dimension, Recycle, is the intentional selection
based on special recycling issues (e.g. “Whenever possible, I buy products packaged in
reusable or recyclable containers”). The fourth dimension, CSR–Boycott, refers to the
refusal to purchase the products based on social issues (e.g. “I do not buy products from
companies that I know use sweatshop labour, child labour, or other poor working EMCB in
conditions”). Finally, the last set of behaviours, comprising Pay–More, refers to the Vietnam
willingness to spend more for ethical products (e.g. “I have paid more for environmentally
friendly/socially responsible products when there is a cheaper alternative”).
The scale has been argued to address the attitude–behaviour gap relating to ethical
consumption, as it measures actual behaviour, though not in an observation way
(Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, 2016). In relation to other behavioural scales of
consumer ethics, Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher (2016) argue that their scale captures
overall ethical consumption related to both broad environmental and social issues, rather
than just particular ethical behaviours such as fair trade (e.g. Shaw et al., 2000), organic
food consumption (e.g. Hughner et al., 2007), socially conscious purchasing (e.g. Pepper
et al., 2009), green marketing or environmentally friendly purchasing behaviour
(Schlegelmilch et al., 1996; Tantawi et al., 2009). Furthermore, the scale incorporates an
important dimension relating to price, which is often considered as one possible
explanation of the attitude–behaviour gap (Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, 2016).
Some researchers argue that factors such as price and value could outweigh ethical
criteria (Carrigan and Attalla, 2001). Given the advantages of the EMCB scale over
attitudinal scales such as ethical judgments, as discussed by Sudbury-Riley and
Kohlbacher (2016), an understanding of the roles of antecedents often used in prior
research in explaining EMCB dimensions could provide a basis for designing
interventions to influence ethical consumer behaviour.
Love of money. The extant literature suggests that money is related to a consumer’s At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
individual characteristics, and that consumers’ attitude towards money could be one of
determinants of their ethical judgements (Hunt and Vitell, 1993; Vitell et al., 2007). The love
of money refers to an individual’s desire for, value of and aspirations for money (Flurry and
Swimberghe, 2016). Those who love money see it as instrumental to happiness and as a
means to display social status and a sign of success (Tang, 2007; Tang and Liu, 2012).
Theory suggests that one’s greater love of money is likely to explain their greater likelihood
of engaging in unethical behaviour (Elias, 2013; Flurry and Swimberghe, 2016). However,
prior research examining the relationship between love of money and various dimensions of
CES reveal that love of money is not related to ethical judgements relating to active/illegal
practices and doing good (Vitell et al., 2006, 2007). Nevertheless, Vitell et al. (2006, 2007)
argue that consumers who love money were less likely to perceive questionable behaviours
as unethical and to do good things without obvious monetary gain. Given that research has
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yet to investigate the relationship between love of money and EMCB, this appears to be an
appropriate construct to examine in relation to EMCB. It seems logical that one who exhibits
a higher love of money will be less likely to be willing to pay more money for an ethical
product. Thus, it can be hypothesised that:
H1. Love of money is negatively related to the dimensions of EMCB: (a) Eco–Buy, (b)
Eco–Boycott, (c) Recycle, (d) CSR–Boycott and (e) Pay–More.
Spirituality. Spirituality is a relatively new research construct which refers to values,
ideals and virtues that one is committed to (Vitell et al., 2016). This construct is closely
related to, but distinctive from, religiosity (Chen and Tang, 2013; Chowdhury and
Fernando, 2013). In fact, prior research on religiosity distinguishes intrinsic religiosity
and extrinsic religiosity: the former taps into one’s commitment to one’s religious
principles and values without expecting anything in return; and the latter refers to the
extent to which religion serves one’s social or business goals (Allport and Ross, 1967;
Vitell et al., 2009). In this vein, the extrinsic dimension does not measure religiosity
per se (Bakar et al., 2013). Prior research also reveals that intrinsic religiosity rather
than extrinsic religiosity is closely associated with consumers’ ethical judgements APJML
(Bakar et al., 2013; Vitell and Muncy, 2005). Furthermore, just as spirituality is closely
related to intrinsic religiosity and appears to be more universal, spirituality is suggested
to be examined in lieu of religiosity in order to control for differences across religions, and
even perhaps to be applicable for those of no particular religious affiliation (Vitell et al.,
2016). As such, spirituality is considered a logical surrogate of religiosity in research that
could involve people with various, or no, religious membership (Vitell et al., 2016). Thus, it
appears to be meaningful to investigate the relationship between spirituality, in lieu of
intrinsic religiosity, and EMCB. Several studies have found a positive relationship
between intrinsic religiosity and beliefs that questionable consumer activity is unethical
(e.g. Patwardhan et al., 2012; Singhapakdi et al., 2013; Vitell et al., 2007). The results of
Vitell et al. (2016) show that consumers’ spirituality relates to their judgements of
questionable activities, but not to doing-good activities. This does not mean that highly
spiritual consumers do not look upon ethical behaviours, but that perhaps spirituality is
not related to specific activities such as recycling. It appears to be logical that those with
higher spirituality are likely to have a greater level of commitment towards moral and
ethical beliefs (Vitell et al., 2005). Thus, it can be hypothesised that:
H2. Spirituality is positively related to the dimensions of EMCB: (a) Eco–Buy,
(b) Eco–Boycott, (c) Recycle, (d) CSR–Boycott, and (e) Pay–More.
Attitude to ethical consumption. General theories of consumer behaviour have defined
attitude as one of the key antecedents of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 2010;
Hunt and Vitell, 2006). Under the conditions of these two theories, attitude towards the act is At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
an important antecedent of behavioural intention, which in turn impacts behaviour.
Researchers point to the intention–behaviour gap as a limitation of these theories’
explanatory power (Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher, 2016). Rather than using those theories
as a guide, some researchers instead examine the direct relationship between attitude and
behaviour. For example, attitude towards the software piracy and purchases of illegal copies
of music CDs positively affects consumer’s digital piracy behaviour (Arli et al., 2015). Vitell
and Muncy’s (1992) research posited that consumers who hold more positive attitude
towards illegal acts have a higher tendency to engage in questionable consumer behaviours.
In a similar vein, Chan et al. (1998) revealed that there is a significant correlation between
attitude towards illegal acts and actively benefiting from an illegal activity. Based on those
empirical findings, it can be hypothesised that:
H3. Attitude to ethical consumption is positively related to the dimensions of EMCB:
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(a) Eco–Buy, (b) Eco–Boycott, (c) Recycle, (d) CSR–Boycott and (e) Pay–More.
Subjective norms to ethical consumption. Another construct widely used in investigating the
antecedents of human behaviour is subjective norms (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975;
Olsen and Grunert, 2010). The subjective norms construct is an individual-level
measurement which refers to the extent to which the consumer perceives social pressure
from relevant others on them in performing or not performing the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).
Fielding, Terry, Masser and Hogg (2008) provide empirical support for the significant link
between the reconceptualised subjective norm and sustainable agricultural practices.
Consistent with this, research has also provided empirical evidence for the significant
relationship between social influence and purchase behaviour of products with
environmental and ethical claims (Bartels and Onwezen, 2014) or decision to purchase
environmentally friendly products (Salazar et al., 2013). Some research has found that group
norms, which refers to the expectations of behaviourally relevant reference groups, are
predictive of behaviour, rather than expectations of generalised others (Fielding, McDonald
and Louis, 2008). It has been argued that the subjective norms construct is an important
determinant of sustainable behaviour, adding predictive power in explaining intention and
behaviour (Fielding, McDonald and Louis, 2008; Johe and Bhullar, 2016). Thus, it can be EMCB in hypothesised that: Vietnam
H4. Subjective norms to ethical consumption are positively related to the dimensions of
EMCB: (a) Eco–Buy, (b) Eco–Boycott, (c) Recycle, (d) CSR–Boycott and (e) Pay–More.
Long-term orientation and collectivism. Hunt–Vitell’s (1986) general theory of marketing
ethics considered culture as an antecedent in ethical reasoning. Most previous studies
postulated cultural environment using Hofstede’s (1984) cultural taxonomy which
encompasses five distinct cultural dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
individualism/collectivism, femininity/masculinity and long-term orientation (Arli and
Tjiptono, 2014; Vitell et al., 2016). Once widely used to characterise a national culture at the
global/macro level, subsequently researchers argue that these cultural dimensions can be
measured at the individual/micro level (Arli and Tjiptono, 2014; Vitell et al., 2016). However,
notably, limited research has been conducted to examine the relationship between cultural
dimensions at the individual-level and consumers’ ethical judgements, especially on Asian
emerging market contexts (Arli and Tjiptono, 2014), let alone EMCB. Furthermore, previous
research has shown that only collectivism and long-term orientation are associated with
spirituality and consumer ethical predisposition (Vitell et al., 2016). In particular, evidence
has revealed that consumers with greater levels of collectivism and long-term orientation
are more likely to be predisposed to ethical judgments concerning “doing good” (Vitell et al.,
2016). Indeed, long-term orientation and collectivism are mostly accepted as the drivers of
pro-environment or positively ethical behaviours (Leonidou et al., 2010; Vitell et al., 2016). At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
Moreover, researchers postulate that consumers in Asia, who score higher long-term
orientation values, would hold higher ethical values (Moon and Franke, 2000; Tsui and
Windsor, 2001). Drawing on previous evidence, the present study selects collectivism and
long-term orientation in the investigation of EMCB.
Long-term orientation refers to perseverance, thrift and sacrifice of present pleasures for
future success; whereas, at the opposite end, short-term orientation represents emphasises
on present-time successes, protecting one’s face, fulfilling social obligations, and personal
steadiness and stability (Hofstede, 2011; Vitell et al., 2016). Research has revealed that
consumers who are high in long-term orientation tend to hold higher levels of ethical values
(Arli and Tjiptono, 2014; Nevins et al., 2007). It makes sense that a consumer with an
orientation to the values of the future would be more likely to engage in ethical behaviour
for long-term benefit though they may have to sacrifice short-run benefits (Vitell et al., 2016).
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In addition, those scoring high in terms of long-term orientation would be inclined towards
virtues consistent with future rewards and less towards immediate gratification (Vitell et al.,
2016). Thus, it can be hypothesised that:
H5. Long-term orientation is positively related to dimensions of EMCB: (a) Eco–Buy, (b)
Eco–Boycott, (c) Recycle, (d) CSR–Boycott and (e) Pay–More.
One pole of this dimension, labelled as individualism, is defined as the extent to which one
places importance on self-interest and individual freedom, and prefers loose ties with their
surrounding others (Hofstede, 1984). Its opposite pole, collectivism, refers to the extent to
which one views oneself as part of a group, hence putting group interests first and holding
greater respect for tradition (Hofstede, 1984; Vitell et al., 2016). Those who are high in terms
of collectivism place more importance on collective good over their own benefit, thus they
are likely to engage in doing-good practices (Vitell et al., 2016). Despite the theorising and
postulating that collectivistic consumers are more likely to follow norms and may break
rules, Vitell et al.’s (2016) study provides evidence that consumers with higher collectivistic
values are more likely to place higher value on “doing good” since this is the most visible
and positive dimension of their ethics. As such, it could be expected that, in collectivistic APJML
societies, as in many Asian countries, collectivistic consumers are also more likely to
consider the impact of their behaviour on society and favour activities for the sake of the
good of society as a whole. Thus, it can be hypothesised that:
H6. Collectivism is positively related to dimensions of EMCB: (a) Eco–Buy, (b) Eco–
Boycott, (c) Recycle, (d) CSR–Boycott, and (e) Pay–MORE (Figure 1). Methodology Sample and procedure
Calls for participation in the survey were posted publicly on Facebook and LinkedIn to
recruit participants. Within the three-week timeframe of the survey, a total of 352
questionnaires were distributed. Of these 352 collected questionnaires, 316 questionnaires
were completed and usable for data analysis. Numbers of male and female respondents are
almost equal (50.9 per cent male and 47.8 per cent female). The age group is mostly from 20
to 40 years old, and most of the respondents have completed university (56 per cent) or a
postgraduate degree (40.8 per cent). The sample also indicates a wide range of incomes and
occupations, which is appropriate for analysing the impact of demographics on EMCB.
Regarding religion, the sample reflects the special culture in Vietnam, that many people are
usually self-classified as non-religious (47.5 per cent).
Measurement instrument and reliability At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
The instrument comprises five sections. The first section is the measurement scale of EMCB
adopted from Sudbury-Riley and Kohlbacher (2016). Developed and extensively tested
among respondents in five countries, the finalised scale is comprised of ten items over five
dimensions. Over the five dimensions, as outlined above, respondents rated the ethical
consumption behaviour on a five-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly
agree”. Performed by Cronbach’s α with SPSS, the reliability of the five dimensions of
EMCB scale is as follows: Eco–Buy (two items; α Boycott (two items; 0.80), ¼ 0.74), Eco– α ¼
Recycle (two items; α ¼ 0.64), CSR–Boycott (two items; α 0.85), Pay ¼ –More (two items;
α ¼ 0.85). The Cronbach’s α values indicate the high reliability of most dimensions (αW0.7)
except Recycle. As the low α values are acceptable and common in previous research within
this area (e.g. Arli and Tjiptono, 2014; Lu and Lu, 2010), the dimension Recycle was
remained for the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).
Downloaded by University of Florida Love of money H1a–e Spirituality H2a–e Ethically minded Attitude to ethical H3a–e consumer behaviour consumption (a) Eco-Buy Subjective norms to (b) Eco-Boycott ethical consumption H4a–e (c) Recycle (d) CSR-Boycott H5a–e (e) Pay-More Long-term orientation Figure 1. H6a–e The conceptual model Collectivism
The second section is the measurement instrument of cultural values, comprising collectivism EMCB in
and long-term orientation. The scales were adapted from CVSCALE of Yoo et al. (2011) Vietnam
measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level. Collectivism
and long-term orientation are high in Asian cultures. Collectivists believe that group loyalty
should be encouraged and members should follow the norms, even if the individual goals
suffer. The basic idea of long-term orientation is to give up today’s pleasure for success in the
future. Respondents evaluated the statements of cultural values on a five-point Likert scale
from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The overall reliability of both collectivism (six
items; α ¼ 0.90) and long-term orientation (three items; α ¼ 0.76) is high.
The third section measures the personal values of consumers which are comprised of
spirituality and love of money. Statements were evaluated on a five-point Likert scale from
“strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. Spirituality is the intrinsic view of religiosity which
involves values, ideals and virtues to the religion to which one is committed (Vitell et al.,
2016). This is measured by the scale adapted from the intrinsic religiousness scale of Arli
and Tjiptono (2014). The overall reliability of spirituality is 0.88 (six items). Love of money is
characterised as a consumer’s desire of, value of and aspirations for money (Flurry and
Swimberghe, 2016). The scale for love of money was adapted from Flurry and Swimberghe
(2016). The overall reliability of love of money is 0.75 (three items).
The fourth section is the measurement instrument of the consumer attitude to
ethical consumption and subjective norms. The measurement scales were adapted from
Fielding, McDonald and Louis’ (2008) scale measuring attitude and norms to
environmental activism. For the attitude, respondents rated the statements using five- At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
point semantic scales for the question, “I think that engaging in ethical consumption
behaviour is” (bad/good, foolish/wise, harmful/beneficial and unsatisfying/satisfying).
The overall reliability of attitude is 0.82 ( four items). For the subjective norm, participants
were asked the evaluate five-point semantic scales for three questions, for example: “If I
engaged in ethical consumption behaviour people who are important to me would [ ]” …
(completely disapprove; completely approve); “Most people who are important to me think
that engaging in ethical consumption behaviour is [ ]” (completely undesirable; …
completely desirable); “Most people who are important to me think that [ ] (I should not; I …
should) engage in ethical consumption behaviour”. The overall reliability of attitude is
0.89 (three items). The last section includes the questions to collect demographic
information of the respondents, such as gender, age, education, income, religion,
occupation, to be used in the data analyses.
Downloaded by University of Florida Results Confirmatory factor analyses
Before developing the measurement models for each dimension of EMCB, the exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) was performed on the predictors of the conceptual model to
identify how the items are related and the estimation of factor loadings. The EFA results
indicated the factor structure as expected, so that they were valid for the measurement
model development for further analyses. Then, five measurement models for five
dimensions of EMCB were developed to measure the effects of factors and values
on each dimension of EMCB. The measurement models were tested by CFA before
performing the structural equation modelling (SEM). As reported in Table I, the
results of CFA analyses suggest that four measurement models for Eco–Buy,
Eco–Boycott, CSR–Boycott and Pay–More satisfy the threshold values, indicating good
model fit (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; MacKenzie et al., 2011) and satisfactory reliability
and validity (Hair et al., 2006). However, the AVE and CR values of Recycle did not satisfy
the threshold values (Table I). Thus, the model of Recycle dimension was not included in the following SEM analyses. APJML Eco–Buy Eco–Boycott Recycle CSR–Boycott Pay–More (CR 0.74; ¼ (CR 0.81; ¼ (CR 0.65; ¼ (CR 0.97; ¼ (CR 0.85; ¼ AVE 0.59) ¼ AVE 0.68) ¼ AVE 0.48) ¼ AVE 0.94) ¼ AVE 0.75) ¼ CR AVE CR AVE CR AVE CR AVE CR AVE Love of money 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 Spirituality 0.87 0.50 0.87 0.50 0.87 0.50 0.87 0.50 0.87 0.50 Attitude 0.85 0.66 0.85 0.66 0.85 0.66 0.85 0.66 0.85 0.66 Norms 0.90 0.74 0.90 0.74 0.90 0.74 0.90 0.74 0.90 0.74 Long-term orientation 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 0.76 0.52 Collectivism 0.90 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.90 0.60 0.90 0.60 Model fit indices χ2/df 2.10 2.12 2.15 2.20 2.06 CFI 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.92 SRMR 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 RMSEA 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 Table I. Measurement models Note: n ¼ 316 Path analyses
In order to test the relationships between antecedents and EMCB, four SEMs were performed on
each dimension of EMCB, except Recycle. The four dimensions (i.e. ECO–BUY, ECO–Boycott,
CSR–Boycott, Pay–More) were the dependent variables of the four SEMs, respectively. The At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
results of these analyses are reported in Table II.
For Eco–Buy and Pay–More, the SEM result supports three out of six relationships
tested, attitude to ethical consumption, long-term orientation and collectivism. Love of
money is only related to Pay–More, and that is a negative relationship ( β ¼ −0.14, po0.05),
confirming H1e. Love of money and Eco–Buy has no relationship ( β ¼ −0.04, pW0.05), not
supporting H1a. Spirituality has insignificant relationships with both Eco–Buy and Pay–
More, so that H2a and H2e are rejected. Attitude to ethical consumption is significantly
related to purchase behaviours, Eco–Buy ( β ¼ 0.19, po0.05) and Pay–More ( β 0.25, ¼
p o 0.01), supporting H3a and H3e. Long-term orientation also has positive effects on
purchase behaviours, ECO–BUY ( β ¼ 0.16, po0.1) and Pay–More ( β 0.14, 0.1), ¼ p o
supporting H5a and H5e. Collectivism has positive relationships with purchase behaviours,
Eco–Buy ( β ¼ 0.20, po0.05) and Pay–More ( β 0.16, ¼
p o 0.05), supporting H6a and H6e.
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For Eco–Boycott and CSR–Boycott, the SEM result only supports two relationships
tested, subjective norms and long-term orientation. All factors – love of money, spirituality
and Attitude – have no relationship with Eco–Boycott and CSR–Boycott, so that all Eco–Buy Eco–Boycott CSR–Boycott Pay–More Standardised Standardised Standardised Standardised estimate p-value estimate p-value estimate p-value estimate p-value Love of money −0.04 0.56 0.09 0.22 − −0.04 0.39 −0.14** 0.04 Spirituality 0.07 0.32 0.08 0.25 −0.01 0.88 0.10 0.11 Attitude 0.19** 0.02 0.02 0.77 −0.03 0.59 0.25*** 0.00 Norms 0.04 0.64 0.16** 0.03 0.17*** 0.00 0.01 0.90 Long-term orientation 0.16* 0.05 0.23*** 0.00 0.14** 0.01 0.14* 0.06 Table II. Collectivism 0.20** 0.01 0.08 0.28 −0.02 0.63 0.16** 0.02 Results of path analyses
Notes: n ¼ 316. *po0.1; **po0.05; ***po0.01
hypotheses H1b, H1d, H2a, H2d, H3b and H3d are not supported. Subjective norm has a EMCB in
positive relationship with boycott behaviours, Eco–Boycott ( β ¼ 0.16, po0.05) and Vietnam
CSR–Boycott ( β ¼ 0.17, po0.01), supporting the hypotheses H4b and H4d. Long-term
orientation is positively related to boycott behaviours, Eco–Boycott ( β ¼ 0.23, po0.01) and CSR–Boycott ( β .
¼ 0.14, p o 0.05), supporting the hypotheses H5b and H5d ANOVA analyses
Literature suggests that various demographic descriptors such as age, gender, income
and educational level appear to be related to consumer ethics (Chowdhury and Fernando,
2013; Vitell, 2003; Chen and Tang, 2013). Thus, in order to understand the roles of
demographics on consumer ethics, this study compares the impact of demographic
information on each dimension of ethically minded behaviour of the Vietnamese
consumers. The ANOVA analyses were conducted with five demographic groups, namely,
gender, age, income, education and job level, following the procedure used in previous
studies in the consumer ethics field (e.g. Lu and Lu, 2010). The results of those ANOVA
analyses are shown in Table III.
Firstly, for the gender, there is no difference between male and female respondents in
their engagement with ethical consumption behaviour. The F-values for all five
dimensions are not statistically significant. Second, the age of respondents was grouped
into three age ranges, under 30, 30–40 and over 40. Results indicate that age groups are
significantly different in Eco–Buy, Eco–Boycott and Pay–More dimensions. Consumers
over 40 are more likely to engage with these three ethical behaviour dimensions than At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
young consumers who are less than 30. Consumers over 40 are also more likely to boycott
the products due to environmental issues than consumer group from 30 to 40. Third, there
is a statistically significant impact of income on the four dimensions of ethical
consumption, except CSR–Boycott. Results show that the high-income group tends to
engage with ethical behaviours more than the low-income group. Fourth, similar to the
gender group, the education level (bachelor degree vs postgraduate degree) also has no
significant impact on EMCB. Finally, in terms of the job-level group, ANOVA results
present a greater likelihood of consumers who are holding management positions to
attend the dimensions of Eco–Buy, Eco–Boycott and Recycle. Especially, the results of
ANOVA analyses indicate that the demographic groups have no effect on CSR–Boycott of
the Vietnamese consumers included in this study.
Downloaded by University of Florida Discussion
The results of the SEM approach reveal the effects of examined variables on the dimensions
of EMCB, except Recycle. The low reliability and the exclusion of Recycle reflect the
unpopularity of recycling concepts and recycled products in Vietnam (de Koning et al.,
2015). Some consumers might consider that the recycled or reusable products are
unavailable in the marketplace or are unsure about the concept.
Regarding personal values, two constructs which have been widely proven to have an
impact on ethical beliefs were analysed within this study, but the analyses lead to
insignificant results. It is understandable that love of money only has a negative
relationship with Pay–More. This result can be compared with the previous research on love
of money and a similar meaning construct of materialism. Interestingly, this is inconsistent
with previous studies (e.g. Arli and Tjiptono, 2014; Flurry and Swimberghe, 2016; Lu and
Lu, 2010; Muncy and Eastman, 1998), which support the negative impact of love of money
and materialism on ethical beliefs. This could be because, in Vietnam, eco-friendly product
purchase is strongly connected to health issues, and there is a general distrust towards
business and government actors (de Koning et al., 2015). Thus, eco-friendly products are
considered as good and healthy products. Because of the concerns for health and living c 0 APJML o 3 h U L st W W o 0 P 4 H re O o M * * 8 * * 5 9 8 2 y– .0 .9 .2 a 0 .7 .2 0 1 P n 3 3 5 8 6 3 7 2 3 6 1 2 4 3 8 ea e¼ .0 .0 ¼ ¼ ¼ .9 .1 .2 ¼ .9 .1 .1 e .1 .0 e .1 .0 .9 M lu 4 4 e 3 4 4 e 3 4 4 lu 4 4 4 4 3 a lu lu a lu a -v a a -v -v F -v -v F F F F 1 .0 st c 0 o o P h o p tt * co * * y o 1 4 5 2 6 ; 5 B .0 .8 .7 .1 .4 – 0 1 2 0 1 .0 0 R n 4 1 S ea e¼ 1 2 e¼ 4 5 9 e¼ 7 7 2 e¼ 3 0 e¼ 0 8 2 o C .3 .3 .2 .3 .4 .1 .3 .4 .3 .3 .4 .2 .2 M lu lu lu lu 4 p a 4 4 a 4 4 4 a 4 4 3 a 4 4 lu 4 a 4 * * -v -v -v -v -v ; F F F F F .1 0 o st c L E p o o * P h W W H M re. u cle 2 7 * * 7 * ced .1 .7 2 .1 * 8 ro ecy 0 2 .5 2 At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT) .9 p R n 3 2 2 ¼ 3 g ea e¼ 5 8 8 3 1 3 0 7 ¼ 2 0 - 7 0 8 .8 .8 e .7 .9 .0 .7 .9 .9 e .9 .8 F .9 .7 .8 M lu e¼ lu 3 3 a 3 3 lu 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 e¼ 3 3 a lu a -v a -v lu a testin F -v F v c F F v o h c 0 0 st o 3 3 o h U U L p st E W W W o 0 0 ey P 4 4 H W rk tt U O M u co T y * * e o 7 * 1 * B th .7 * * .4 7 1 2 e * .7 0 .5 g co– n * 0 4 3 E 4 2 lu 0 6 3 1 3 2 6 2 0 1 0 sin ea e¼ .9 .8 a .0 ¼ 0 .7 .0 .1 .7 .9 .0 e .8 .9 ¼ .0 .7 .9 u M lu 3 3 -v 3 4 4 e¼ 3 3 4 lu 3 3 e 4 3 3 5 a F 1 lu a lu .0 -v ¼ a -v a 0
Downloaded by University of Florida F -v F -v F F o p t c 0 a o 3 h U L re a st E W W o 0 H P 4 W ces y O M u B * 9 * * * * 0 * ifferen .1 7 4 .0 7 co– 0 .1 .1 2 .1 d E t n 3 9 4 4 1 1 8 7 6 7 0 6 5 1 0 6 n ea e¼ .8 .9 .8 .9 .0 ¼ ¼ .7 .9 .0 e .9 .8 .0 .8 .8 M lu 3 3 e¼ 3 3 4 e 3 3 4 lu 3 3 e¼ 4 3 3 a lu lu a lu ifica n -v a a -v a F -v -v F -v sig F F F ll ) ) A ) (E . 0 ) ) (P 6 3 ) ) ) 1 0 D (L ) te ers 3 Table III. ) ) ) (U 0 4 N (H m (M (U a n ) Results of ANOVA ) rk (F 0 4 (O (M m n u o n¼ 3 (V 5 r (U 0 1 0 d tio ers w (O : analyses for er (M le 4 e m 3 tio ra a g s d a 0 0 elo p a demographics le er m er e ca d 4 er d 3 er u n ers te en a ch stg em g n 1– v co n 5– v d a o ccu a ffice th o G M F A U 3 O In U 1 O E B P O M O O N
environment and the distrust towards business, Vietnamese consumers are willing to EMCB in
engage in eco-friendly purchase regardless of the love of money. Besides this, there is no Vietnam
relationship between spirituality and EMCB dimensions. The absence of an influential role
of spirituality in the present study is in contrast with prior research on spirituality and
ethical beliefs (e.g. Arli and Tjiptono, 2014; Vitell et al., 2016). Vietnam is a multi-religion
culture in which many Vietnamese are self-considered as being non-religious, for example,
for 47.5 per cent of respondents in the present study.
Attitude and subjective norms examined in this study are the attitudes to ethical
consumption and subjective norm in relation to ethical consumption. The interesting fact is
that personal attitude will lead to ethical purchase behaviour, whereas subjective norm will
lead to boycotting behaviour (or maybe boycotting campaigns). This also reflects the
anxiety and distrust of Vietnamese consumers towards unethical businesses. Past studies
conclude that both attitude and subjective norm would link to ethical behaviour, from the
perspective of the theory of planned behaviour (e.g. Casidy et al., 2016; Fielding, McDonald
and Louis, 2008); but when we look into each dimension of the behaviour in the present
study, a different result was found.
The findings assert the effects of cultural values of collectivism and long-term orientation
on the likelihood of ethical consumer behaviour. Long-term orientation is positively related to
all the four dimensions of ethically minded behaviour, and collectivism is positively associated
with Eco–Buy and PAY–More. Although there is a lack of research on the relationships
between such cultural values and ethical consumer behaviour, this finding is consistent with
the previous studies as asserting the impact of collectivism and long-term orientation on At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
environmental attitude (e.g. Leonidou et al., 2010). Consumers who are collectivists or long-
term orientated would be more likely to conduct ethical purchase behaviour. They tend to
think and act for others and for the coming generations, so that they are willing to engage in
such ethical behaviours. Regarding the impact of long-term orientation and collectivism on
ethical consumption, it can be predicted that consumer ethics will soon be popular in Asian
countries, as collectivism and long-term orientation are the main cultural values in this region.
For example, even though people in Vietnam have limited knowledge of sustainable
consumption, their awareness of protecting the planet is generally high (de Koning et al., 2015).
The ANOVA analyses compared the tendency of consumers to engage in ethical
behaviour from different demographic groups. Inconsistent with other studies (e.g. Lu and
Lu, 2010), in the present study, gender and education have no effect on EMCB. For the
education level, the reason might be because the sample only reflects groups of holders of
bachelor and postgraduate degrees, which are all at a high educational level. The group of
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people who do not hold a bachelor degree only accounts for 3.2 per cent, which is too low for
the ANOVA analysis. On the other hand, other elements such as age, income and job level
(managers and office workers) significantly relate to the EMCB. In particular, the CSR–
Boycott dimension has no significant difference through all demographic groups. Again,
this might be because there is an unclear definition in Vietnam about corporate social
responsibility and there is no official assessment of social responsibility in Vietnamese
firms, so that the perceptions in relation to these issues are ambiguous. Conclusions
This study explores the EMCB in Vietnam, by conducting an extensive investigation based
on cultural and personal factors and demographic information. Most of the previous
research in this area has been conducted on Western countries and has mostly focussed on
analysing ethical beliefs and judgements. As the first study to fully investigate dimensions
of consumer’s ethical behaviour, particularly in Vietnam, this study therefore significantly
contributes to the body of knowledge regarding consumer ethics in Asia. Moreover, this is
one of the first studies that explores the EMCB based on five dimensions that are relevant to APJML
wider social considerations, as compared to previous studies focussing on extensively
specific aspects (e.g. green purchase or digital piracy). This could provide initial findings to
understand how the popular factors which have been concluded as relating to ethical beliefs
have impacts on different aspects of ethical consumption behaviour. In addition, evidence
from the research adds validation to the EMCB scale.
The findings provide several thought-provoking points in the Vietnamese consumer
landscape. For example, spirituality has no relationship with ethical consumption in the
present study, and this finding is inconsistent with all the other research in this area; and
attitude is related to ethical purchase, but subjective norm is associated with boycotting
behaviours. This suggests more understanding and awareness of the reality for
practitioners in Vietnam is needed, and such topics should be further investigated to
provide better insights into the questions from studies within this cultural context.
As a result, this study could be of great benefit for policy makers and practitioners in
Vietnam in understanding how personal and cultural factors affect the ethical consumption
behaviour of Vietnamese consumers. It is especially important to global companies which
intend to enter the Vietnamese market in the near future, to understand the insights into the
consumer ethics context in this local market. Practitioners may also note that the results
highlight differences between purchasing behaviours and boycotting behaviours, as well as
perceptions regarding corporate social responsibility and ecology. Even though these
concepts are quite new in Vietnam, local consumers show considerable concern about these
issues, as they are well aware of the environmental and health issues. Vietnam is an emerging
and sizable market, so that these findings could provide a significant understanding of the At 09:28 20 March 2019 (PT)
local market practices. Furthermore, it provides practitioners in Vietnam with a measurement
instrument that can be used to profile and segment consumers.
This study has some limitations which suggest potential areas for future research. First,
given the novel nature of the EMCB scale, this study only focussed on the improved
understanding of predictors of EMCB dimensions, and was not concerned with the underlying
decision-making processes. Future research across contexts or with longitudinal design is
warranted to examine the processes explaining EMCB, as well as to assess more appropriately
the causal relationships among antecedents within the processes. Second, this analysis was
only conducted in Vietnam, which may limit the scope for generalisation. Future research can
extend to other countries in order to understand the ethically minded behaviour of consumers
in other cultures, particularly within the developing world, where blanket generalisations are
not always found to apply, as in the present study. Third, despite an extensive analysis, only
popular factors have been investigated within the limited space of this study. Therefore,
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future research would need to examine all Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values to
provide a general landscape of how cultural values influence ethical behaviours. Fourth,
although the data were collected with a non-student sample and are relatively diversified,
future research would need to extend the scope of the sample collected to capture information
from other demographic groups (e.g. people have not attended university). Finally, to capture
deeper insights into consumer ethics and explain the present findings, qualitative
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