Essay Questions - POM: Types of Horizontal Organizational Structures and Their môn Principle of Management | Trường Đại học Quốc tế, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh

ESSAY QUESTIONS Chap 11
What Are the Types of Horizontal Organizational Structures?
Organizing is the process of arranging people and resources to work
toward a common goal. It involves making decisions about how to divide
the work, allocating people and resources to tasks, and coordinating the
results to improve productivity. The structure of an organization is the
system that links tasks, reporting relationships, and communication
among people and positions. This includes the formal structure, often
shown in organization charts, which defines how work is supposed to flow
and who reports to whom. In addition, organizations have an informal
structure, made up of unofÏcial relationships and social networks among
employees. For example, Toyota uses a formal structure in its production
system to clearly define roles and workflows, but it also depends heavily
on informal teamwork and open communication between workers to
quickly identify and solve problems. This blend of formal and informal
structures helps Toyota maintain efÏciency and flexibility in its operations.
(Discussion TA 1) If organization charts are imperfect, why bother with them?
Organization charts may be imperfect because they can’t capture all
informal relationships or the dynamic nature of work, but they are still
valuable. They provide a clear visual of the formal structure—showing
roles, responsibilities, and reporting lines—which helps everyone
understand how work is organized and who to contact for decisions. For
example, at a company like IBM, the org chart clarifies who leads different
departments, making coordination easier even though informal networks
also exist. So, despite their limitations, organization charts are essential
tools for communication, planning, and managing complex organizations.
How Are Organizational Designs Changing the Workplace?
Traditional organization structures play a crucial role in how companies
arrange their work and manage employees. First, in functional
structures, people with similar skills and who perform similar
activities are grouped together under a , which common manager
promotes specialization and efÏciency. For example, Procter & Gamble
groups employees into departments like marketing, finance, and research
to focus on their expertise. Second, divisional structures group
employees based on a common product, geographic region,
customer group, or work process, allowing each division to focus on
its own specific goals. Toyota, for instance, organizes its operations by car
models and regions, making it easier to address local market needs.
Finally, the matrix structure combines functional and divisional
approaches to create permanent cross-functional project teams,
improving collaboration across departments. Philips uses this to develop
innovative products by having teams from different functions and divisions
work together. These traditional structures help divide work clearly, assign
responsibility, and coordinate efforts, which are essential for organizational success.
(Discussion TA 2) Why use functional structures if they are prone
to functional chimneys problems?
Functional structures group people with similar skills and tasks under one
manager, which helps improve efÏciency and expertise in each area.
Although they can cause "functional chimneys"—where departments
become isolated and communication breaks down—these structures
clarify roles, simplify supervision, and allow specialists to focus deeply on
their tasks. For example, in a company like Toyota, functional departments
like engineering, manufacturing, and marketing work separately but
efÏciently to produce high-quality cars. Despite the risk of silos, functional
structures help organizations use specialized knowledge effectively and maintain clear accountability.
What are the types of horizontal organization structures?
Horizontal organization structures focus on collaboration and flexibility
rather than rigid hierarchies. Team structures bring together cross-
functional teams and task forces from different departments to improve
lateral communication and problem-solving across all levels. For example,
at Google, teams of engineers, designers, and marketers work closely to
innovate products quickly by sharing expertise. Network structures rely
on contracted services and strategic alliances to support a core
organization, allowing companies to focus on their main strengths while
outsourcing other functions. A real-world example is Nike, which focuses
on design and marketing but contracts manufacturing to external
partners. Boundaryless organizations combine team and network
structures, using technology to break down traditional barriers and
increase flexibility. For instance, General Electric has adopted
boundaryless principles by encouraging collaboration across departments
and locations through digital tools. Finally, virtual organizations rely
heavily on information technology to form dynamic alliances that shift as
needed to complete projects. An example is Automattic, the company
behind WordPress, which operates with a fully remote workforce spread
worldwide, coordinating through digital platforms. These horizontal
structures help organizations be more adaptive, innovative, and efÏcient
in today’s fast-changing business environment.
(Discussion TA 3) How can problems with group decision making hurt team structures?
Problems with group decision making can seriously hurt team structures
by causing delays, poor choices, and conflict. For example, group
decisions often take longer than individual ones because everyone’s
opinions must be considered, which can slow down progress. Also, social
pressures like conformity can lead to groupthink, where the team values
harmony over critical evaluation, resulting in bad decisions. This can
reduce creativity and problem-solving quality. When teams experience
social loafing, some members contribute less, causing frustration and
reducing overall team motivation. These issues can weaken trust and
cooperation, making the team less effective. For instance, in the
Challenger Space Shuttle disaster, groupthink within NASA’s decision-
making teams led to ignoring critical safety warnings, which contributed
to the tragedy. Therefore, teams must manage decision-making carefully
to avoid these pitfalls and maintain strong, productive collaboration.
How are organizational designs changing the workplace?
Organizational designs are changing the workplace by adapting structures
to fit specific situations, a concept known as contingency. Mechanistic
designs, which are bureaucratic and vertical, work well for routine,
predictable tasks but can be rigid. In contrast, organic designs are more
adaptive and horizontal, making them better suited for environments that
require flexibility and change. Current trends in organizing include
reducing management levels, increasing delegation and employee
empowerment, balancing decentralization with some central control, and
cutting down on staff positions. For example, Google uses an organic
design, promoting open communication and flexibility to innovate rapidly
in the tech industry. This approach allows Google to quickly respond to
market changes and foster creativity among employees, showing how
modern organizational design transforms workplaces by making them more agile and responsive.
Which of the organizing trends is most subject to change under current conditions?
Among the organizing trends, decentralization with centralization is
most subject to change under current conditions. This is because
organizations constantly adjust the balance between giving more decision-
making power to lower levels (decentralization) and maintaining control at
the top (centralization) based on factors like technology advances, market
dynamics, and workforce needs. For example, during the COVID-19
pandemic, many companies decentralized decision-making to empower
remote teams, but later recentralized certain functions to ensure
consistency and security. This shows how the balance between
decentralization and centralization shifts to adapt to changing business environments and challenges.
Faisal Sham supervises a group of seven project engineers. His
unit is experiencing a heavy workload, as the demand for
different versions of one of his firm’s computer components is
growing. Faisal finds that he doesn’t have time to follow up on all
design details for each version. Up until now he has tried to do
this all by himself. Two of the engineers have shown interest in
helping him coordinate work on the various designs. As a
consultant, how would you advise Faisal in terms of delegating work to them?
I would advise Faisal to delegate coordination responsibilities to the two
engineers who have shown interest, as this will help him manage his
heavy workload more effectively. By clearly defining their roles and
expectations—such as tracking design progress, facilitating
communication, and resolving minor issues—Faisal can ensure they
understand their responsibilities. It’s important to give them the
necessary authority and resources to make decisions and support their
tasks. Regular check-ins will allow Faisal to stay informed and provide
guidance without micromanaging. Trusting and supporting these
engineers will not only improve team performance but also help develop
their skills. For example, tech companies like Intel often delegate
subsystem coordination to senior engineers, which speeds up project
progress and manages complexity better. This approach reflects sound
management practices of distributing tasks to enhance efÏciency and empower employees.
What symptoms might indicate that a functional structure is
causing problems for the organization?
Problems in a functional structure show up as poor communication
between departments, slow decisions, and conflicts from departments
working alone. For example, sales and production might not coordinate
well, causing delays and unhappy customers. This hurts teamwork and efÏciency.
Explain by example the concept of a network organization structure?
A network organization structure connects a central company with various
external partners, like suppliers or freelancers, to complete tasks. For
example, Nike focuses on design and marketing but outsources
manufacturing to different factories worldwide. This setup lets Nike stay
flexible, reduce costs, and use specialized skills outside the company.
Explain the practical significance of this statement:
“Organizational design should be done in contingency fashion.”
The practical meaning of “organizational design should be done in
contingency fashion” is that a company should choose its structure based
on its specific situation and needs, not follow a fixed model. Different
factors like company size, industry, technology, and environment affect
what design works best. For example, a stable manufacturing firm may
benefit from a rigid, hierarchical structure, while a fast-growing tech
company might need a flexible, team-based structure. Adapting the
design to the situation helps the organization work better and respond to changes effectively.
Describe two trends in organizational design and explain their importance to managers
Two important trends in organizational design are digital transformation and employee empowerment.
1. Digital Transformation involves using technology to improve
communication, collaboration, and decision-making. This trend
allows organizations to become more flexible and respond faster to
changes. For managers, it means they can coordinate teams
remotely, access real-time data, and support virtual work, helping
the organization stay competitive in a fast-paced market.
2. Employee Empowerment gives workers more autonomy and
decision-making authority. Instead of relying solely on top-down
management, employees in empowered organizations take initiative
and collaborate across departments. For managers, this means
shifting from controlling every detail to supporting and guiding
teams, which can lead to higher motivation, creativity, and better problem-solving.
Both trends help managers build adaptable, innovative teams that can
handle today’s complex and changing business environment. CHAP 14<
What is the Nature of Leadership?
Leadership is the ability to influence, guide, and inspire individuals or
groups toward achieving a common goal. It is a dynamic and multifaceted
concept that involves vision, communication, and the capacity to foster
collaboration. Effective leadership transcends mere authority; it is about
earning trust, motivating people, and fostering an environment where
individuals thrive and contribute to shared objectives.
At its core, leadership requires a clear vision. A leader sets a direction for
the team or organization and communicates it compellingly. For instance,
Steve Jobs demonstrated visionary leadership at Apple, inspiring his team
to create innovative products like the iPhone and revolutionizing the tech
industry. His ability to articulate a bold future rallied employees and customers alike.
Leadership also involves adaptability and emotional intelligence. A great
leader recognizes the diverse needs of their team, listens actively, and
adjusts their approach to inspire trust. For example, Jacinda Ardern, the
former Prime Minister of New Zealand, combined empathy and
decisiveness during the COVID-19 crisis, earning global admiration for her leadership style.
In summary, leadership is not limited to a position of power but is a
practice of influence, vision, and the ability to bring out the best in others.
What Are the Important Leadership Traits and Behaviors?
Leadership traits and behaviors significantly influence a leader’s
effectiveness. Key traits include integrity, emotional intelligence,
confidence, adaptability, and the ability to inspire. These traits, when
combined with effective behaviors such as clear communication, decision-
making, and active listening, define impactful leadership.
Integrity is a cornerstone of leadership. Leaders who act with honesty and
uphold ethical standards earn the trust and loyalty of their teams. For
instance, Warren Buffett, CEO of Berkshire Hathaway, is renowned for his
ethical leadership, fostering credibility and long-term success.
Emotional intelligence is equally crucial, encompassing self-awareness,
empathy, and interpersonal skills. Leaders like Oprah Winfrey excel by
connecting with people on a personal level, fostering trust and
collaboration. Her empathetic leadership style has been instrumental in
her success as a media mogul and philanthropist.
Confidence and adaptability enable leaders to navigate challenges and
inspire confidence in their teams. For example, Elon Musk’s willingness to
take bold risks, such as founding SpaceX and Tesla, exemplifies
adaptability and perseverance. These traits have allowed him to achieve
breakthroughs in multiple industries.
Behaviors such as active listening, delegation, and providing constructive
feedback ensure that leaders engage effectively with their teams. When
combined with the right traits, these behaviors create a powerful
leadership framework that drives success.
What Are the Contingency Approaches to Leadership?
Contingency approaches to leadership suggest that no single leadership
style is universally effective. Instead, successful leadership depends on
the context, including the leader’s traits, the situation, and the
characteristics of the team. Popular contingency theories include Fiedler’s
Contingency Model, the Path-Goal Theory, and the Situational Leadership Model.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model emphasizes the match between a leader’s
style (task-oriented or relationship-oriented) and the situation. For
instance, task-oriented leaders perform well in highly structured
environments, while relationship-oriented leaders thrive in dynamic, people-focused settings.
The Path-Goal Theory, developed by Robert House, highlights a leader’s
role in clearing obstacles and providing support for their team to achieve
goals. For example, a sales manager might adopt a supportive leadership
style during challenging times, motivating employees to overcome obstacles and meet targets.
The Situational Leadership Model, proposed by Hersey and Blanchard,
suggests that leadership style should adapt to the team’s maturity and
competence. For instance, a new employee may require directive
leadership, while experienced team members may benefit from a delegative approach.
These contingency theories highlight the importance of flexibility and
situational awareness in leadership, enabling leaders to adapt their style to achieve the best outcomes.
What Are Current Issues in Personal Leadership Development?
Personal leadership development faces several current challenges,
including rapid technological changes, the need for diversity and
inclusion, mental health considerations, and balancing authenticity with
professional demands. These issues shape the way leaders grow and adapt to modern workplaces.
First, technological advancements demand that leaders continually
update their skills. Digital transformation, AI, and automation have
reshaped industries, requiring leaders to embrace lifelong learning. For
example, Satya Nadella, CEO of Microsoft, exemplifies a leader who has
championed digital innovation while fostering a culture of continuous learning.
Second, diversity and inclusion are critical areas for leadership
development. Leaders must develop cultural competence to navigate
diverse teams effectively and ensure equity in the workplace. Companies
like Google invest heavily in leadership training programs to promote
inclusivity and create fair opportunities for all employees.
Third, mental health and well-being have gained prominence. Leaders
must balance high-pressure environments with a focus on self-care and
employee wellness. For instance, Ariana HufÏngton, founder of Thrive
Global, advocates for prioritizing well-being as a key component of effective leadership.
Finally, balancing authenticity with professional demands remains a
challenge. Leaders are expected to be genuine and approachable while
maintaining authority and professionalism. Developing this balance is
essential for earning trust without compromising decision-making abilities.
In conclusion, personal leadership development must address these
contemporary issues, ensuring that leaders are prepared to navigate the
complexities of today’s evolving work environment. CHAP 16
How do individual needs influence motivation?
Individual needs play a crucial role in shaping motivation by influencing
how much effort a person is willing to put into their work, the direction of
that effort, and how long they maintain it. A highly motivated individual
tends to work harder and stay focused on their goals. Several theories
explain how these needs impact motivation. Maslow’s hierarchy outlines a
progression from basic physiological and safety needs to higher-level
needs such as belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Alderfer’s ERG
theory simplifies this into three categories: existence, relatedness, and
growth. Herzberg’s two-factor theory highlights that both the nature of the
job itself (job content) and the surrounding conditions (job context) affect
motivation and performance. Meanwhile, McClelland’s acquired needs
theory emphasizes that individuals are motivated by varying levels of
need for achievement, afÏliation, and power, which influence their goals and behavior at work.
What are the process theories of motivation?
Process theories of motivation focus on how individuals make choices and
how these choices affect their behavior in the workplace. One key theory
is Adams’s equity theory, which highlights the role of social comparison—
employees evaluate the fairness of their rewards by comparing them to
those of others. When they perceive inequity, especially negative inequity,
they may reduce their effort to restore a sense of balance. However, the
idea of equity sensitivity shows that not all individuals care equally about
fairness, and their responses to inequity can vary. Vroom’s expectancy
theory explains motivation as a result of three factors: expectancy (belief
that effort will lead to performance), instrumentality (belief that
performance will lead to outcomes), and valence (the value placed on
those outcomes). Locke’s goal-setting theory points to the motivational
strength of well-defined goals—goals that are specific, challenging but
attainable, and created with employee involvement are most effective.
Lastly, Bandura’s self-efÏcacy theory suggests that people who believe in
their ability to complete a task are more confident and, as a result, more
motivated to work hard and persist in the face of challenges.
What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Reinforcement plays a significant role in motivation by shaping behavior
through its consequences. According to reinforcement theory, people tend
to repeat behaviors that lead to positive outcomes and avoid those that
result in negative consequences. This idea is rooted in the law of effect,
which states that behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is more
likely to be repeated, while behavior followed by an unpleasant
consequence is less likely to recur. Managers use several reinforcement
strategies to influence motivation, including positive reinforcement
(rewarding desired behavior), negative reinforcement (removing an
unpleasant condition when desired behavior occurs), punishment
(applying negative consequences to reduce undesired behavior), and
extinction (withholding reinforcement to reduce unwanted behavior).
Among these, positive reinforcement is especially effective when it follows
the principles of contingent reinforcement—only rewarding desired
behavior—and immediate reinforcement—providing the reward right after the behavior occurs.
What is the link between job design and motivation?
Job design plays a crucial role in motivating employees by shaping the
nature of their work and how they experience it. It involves structuring or
defining specific tasks for individuals or groups. Traditional job
simplification creates narrow, repetitive roles with limited variety—often
seen in assembly-line work—while approaches like job enlargement and
job rotation expand the range of tasks or allow employees to move
between similar jobs, which can reduce boredom and increase
engagement. The job characteristics model provides a more detailed view,
suggesting that motivation is enhanced when a job includes skill variety,
task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Jobs that are rich
in these characteristics are considered more meaningful and motivating.
Additionally, alternative work schedules, such as compressed workweeks,
flexible hours, job sharing, telecommuting, and part-time work, can boost
motivation by offering greater flexibility and helping employees balance
work with personal responsibilities.
How can a manager combine the powers of goal setting and
positive reinforcement to create a highly motivational work
environment for workers with high needs for achievement?
To create a highly motivational work environment for employees with high
needs for achievement, managers should combine clear goal setting with
consistent positive reinforcement. According to Locke’s goal-setting
theory, these individuals are most motivated by goals that are specific,
challenging, and attainable. They enjoy taking responsibility and
measuring their success. By involving them in setting ambitious goals,
managers can increase their sense of ownership and commitment. At the
same time, reinforcement theory suggests that rewarding successful
performance—through praise, bonuses, or growth opportunities—helps
reinforce desired behaviors. It’s important that rewards are given
immediately and based on actual results to be most effective. For
example, companies like Google use OKRs (Objectives and Key Results) to
encourage high performance and recognize achievements with both
verbal praise and career advancement. This dual strategy keeps high
achievers engaged, motivated, and striving for excellence.
(Discussion TA 1) How can managers balance the competing
desires of attempting to meet the unique needs of individual
employees while treating all employees fairly and equitably?
Managers can balance individual needs and fairness by combining equity
theory with personalized motivation. Fairness means treating employees
justly based on their contributions, not identically. At the same time,
people are motivated by different needs—such as achievement or
afÏliation—so managers should tailor rewards while keeping processes transparent and consistent.
A real-life example is Salesforce. The company ensures pay equity through
regular audits while offering flexible work arrangements and personalized
development opportunities. For instance, parents can choose flexible
schedules, and young professionals can access fast-track training. This
balance between fairness and individual support helps boost both motivation and satisfaction.
(Discussion TA 2) In which job aspects are people most likely to be
upset by inequity? In which job aspects are people more likely to
be accepting of, or less concerned about, inequity?
Employees are most likely to be upset by inequity in aspects like pay,
promotions, recognition, and workload, as these are directly tied to effort
and performance. For example, if two employees with similar roles and
output receive different salaries, it can lead to dissatisfaction and
decreased motivation. In contrast, people are generally more accepting of
inequity in areas such as flexible schedules, development opportunities, or
ofÏce space, especially if they see the differences as fair or role-related. At
Microsoft, for instance, flexible work arrangements vary across teams, but
employees accept this because the company communicates the reasoning
clearly and applies policies transparently. This shows that when managers
explain decisions and ensure fairness in core areas like pay and
advancement, they can reduce negative reactions to other perceived inequities.
(Discussion TA 3) Is it possible for a manager or a parent to rely
solely on positive reinforcement strategies?
Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool, but managers or parents should
not rely on it alone. It works well to encourage good behavior, like
rewarding employees for high performance or praising children for doing
homework. However, it doesn't address undesirable behavior. In some
cases, strategies like punishment or extinction are needed to correct
repeated issues. For example, teachers use both praise and clear
consequences to manage classrooms effectively. In short, positive
reinforcement is important, but it works best when combined with clear
rules and appropriate consequences.
Is it reasonable to enrich someone’s job without increasing his or her pay as well?
Yes, enriching someone’s job without increasing pay can be reasonable if
done thoughtfully. Job enrichment—like adding autonomy or meaningful
tasks—can boost motivation and satisfaction, especially for employees
driven by growth or achievement. For example, giving someone the
chance to lead a project may help them develop skills and feel valued,
even without a raise. However, if enrichment leads to significantly more
work without future rewards, it may cause frustration. Transparency is key:
managers should explain the benefits and link enrichment to long-term
opportunities. At Zappos, employees are often encouraged to take on
broader roles, such as cross-training in different departments or leading
team initiatives. While this doesn’t always come with immediate pay
increases, it builds their skills and often leads to internal promotions or new career paths.
What preferences does a person with a high need for
achievement bring to the workplace?
A person with a high need for achievement prefers challenging but
achievable goals, seeks regular feedback on performance, and takes
personal responsibility for results. In the workplace, they are motivated by
tasks where success depends on their own effort and skill, rather than luck
or teamwork. They tend to avoid tasks that are too easy or too risky and
are often driven to improve and succeed. These individuals thrive in
environments that reward performance and provide clear metrics for success.
Why is participation important to goal-setting theory?
Participation matters in goal-setting theory because it boosts
commitment, motivation, and understanding, leading to better performance.
What is the common ground in Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, and
McClelland’s views of human needs?
The common ground in Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, and McClelland’s theories is
that all three view human needs as key drivers of motivation. They agree
that unmet needs create tension that pushes people to act, and that
fulfilling these needs can improve performance and satisfaction at work.
Why might an employer not want to offer employees the option of
a compressed workweek schedule?
Some employers may hesitate to offer a compressed workweek (like
working 4 long days and having 3 days off) because it can cause problems
for the business. Employees might get tired from longer workdays, which
can reduce productivity. If someone is off on a day when their presence is
needed, it could delay or interrupt work. Also, not all teams may follow the
same schedule, which can make communication and collaboration more
difÏcult. In short, while compressed schedules are convenient for
employees, they may not always be practical for the organization. CHAP 17<
How Teams Contribute to Organizations
Teams contribute to organizations by combining different skills,
knowledge, and experiences to achieve shared goals. When team
members work well together, they create synergy—the team achieves
more than individuals could alone. This helps organizations solve
problems, innovate, and improve productivity.
For instance, at Toyota, cross-functional teams were key to developing
the Prius. Engineers, designers, and marketing staff worked closely to
create a hybrid vehicle that was both technically advanced and attractive
to customers. This teamwork allowed Toyota to lead the hybrid car market. Teams also provide
, helping members feel connected and social support
valued, which increases motivation and job satisfaction. However,
problems like social loafing—when some members contribute less—can
weaken team performance. Toyota addresses this through team-based
accountability and continuous improvement practices (Kaizen), which
encourage everyone to stay engaged.
In short, teams help organizations perform better, support their members,
and adapt more quickly to change when managed well.
(DISCUSSION TA 1) Why do people often tolerate social loafers at work?
People often tolerate social loafers at work to avoid conflict and maintain
team harmony. Confronting a social loafer can create tension, so
coworkers or managers may choose to overlook the behavior. Additionally,
in team settings, responsibility can be diffused, with members assuming
someone else will handle the issue. Lack of clear accountability also
makes it harder to identify and address loafing. Sometimes, employees
fear retaliation or negative consequences if they speak up. For example,
in a company project, one member might consistently do less work, but
others tolerate it to keep peace, even though it lowers overall morale and
productivity. This shows how social and organizational factors can prevent
teams from dealing effectively with social loafing.
Current Trends in the Use of Teams
Current trends in the use of teams show how organizations are adapting to
modern challenges by forming more flexible and collaborative structures.
Cross-functional teams are increasingly common as they bring together
people from different departments to work on complex projects. For example, at , pro Unilever
duct development teams include members from
R&D, marketing, and supply chain, allowing for faster and more integrated innovation across the company.
Virtual teams are also on the rise due to advances in technology.
Employees in different locations can now collaborate through tools like
Zoom or Microsoft Teams. A real example is IBM, where many teams work
remotely across different time zones. While virtual teams improve
flexibility and reduce costs, they also require strong communication and trust to function well.
Self-managing teams are another trend, where workers take more
responsibility without direct supervision. At W.L. Gore & Associates (the
company behind Gore-Tex), teams manage themselves and make key
decisions, which encourages innovation and ownership.
Committees and task forces are used for short-term goals, like
launching a new service or solving a specific issue, while team building
activities help strengthen teamwork and improve long-term performance.
These trends reflect a shift toward more collaborative, empowered,
and adaptive team structures, which are essential for success in
today’s fast-changing work environments.
((DISCUSSION TA 2) What are some of the things that virtual
teams probably can’t do as well as face-to-face teams?
Virtual teams face challenges in building strong personal relationships and
effective communication compared to face-to-face teams. They often miss
out on informal interactions and nonverbal cues, which can lead to
misunderstandings and weaker trust among members. For example, IBM
has long used virtual teams worldwide, but they noticed that without
occasional in-person meetings, collaboration suffered due to weaker team
cohesion and miscommunication. This shows that while virtual teams offer
flexibility and global reach, they can struggle with creativity and bonding
compared to face-to-face teams. How Teams Work
Teams work effectively when important team inputs such as the
organizational setting, task nature, team size, and member
characteristics are well-aligned. For example, at NASA, the Mission
Control team operates in a high-pressure setting where complex tasks like
space missions require clear roles and skilled members, showing how inputs shape team success.
As teams progress, they move through development stages: forming,
storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. NASA teams train
and simulate missions beforehand (forming and norming), face
communication stress during real missions (storming), and eventually
achieve high coordination during actual operations (performing), before
wrapping up post-mission reviews (adjourning).
Team effectiveness also depends on norms—shared rules that guide
behavior. At NASA, strict norms on communication and problem-solving
are essential. Combined with high cohesiveness, these norms help
members support each other under pressure.
Distributed leadership occurs when different specialists (e.g., flight
engineers, communications ofÏcers) take initiative in their domain. This
shared leadership helps meet both task and maintenance needs of the team.
Lastly, teams use the right communication structures. NASA uses a
centralized network for mission-critical decisions, but a decentralized
network for real-time collaboration among departments. This balance
ensures high task performance, member satisfaction, and team
viability—the core outcomes of effective teamwork
(DISCUSSION TA 3) What can be done if a team gets trapped in
the storming stage of group development?
When a team gets stuck in the storming stage of development, it often
faces conflicts, misunderstandings, and power struggles. To move forward,
the team should start by clarifying its goals and each member’s role,
reducing confusion and competition. Open communication must be
encouraged so members feel safe expressing concerns and resolving
issues constructively. Establishing clear norms for behavior and decision-
making also helps guide team interactions. At the same time, trust-
building activities and supportive leadership are essential to shift the
team’s focus toward collaboration. For example, at Pixar Animation
Studios, creative teams often face tension during the development of new
films. To address this, Pixar uses “Braintrust” meetings, where honest
feedback is encouraged in a respectful setting. This helps the team
resolve conflicts, improve their ideas, and transition to higher stages of performance.
How Teams Make Decisions
Teams make decisions using various methods, such as authority rule,
majority rule, consensus, or unanimity. Each method has pros and
cons depending on the context. For example, in emergency situations like
in hospitals, medical teams may rely on authority rule, where the lead
doctor makes quick decisions. This ensures speed but limits input from others.
In contrast, at companies like IDEO, a global design firm, teams often use
consensus or brainstorming to make creative decisions. Team members
are encouraged to contribute ideas equally, helping avoid premature
judgments. This approach increases understanding, commitment, and
solution quality, though it may take more time.
However, highly cohesive teams may fall into groupthink, where the
desire for agreement overrides critical thinking. A real-world example is
NASA’s Challenger disaster, where warning signs were overlooked
because engineers and managers didn’t want to challenge the consensus.
This led to a tragic launch failure.
To avoid groupthink and enhance creativity, teams can use
brainstorming to freely generate ideas and nominal group technique
to let individuals write down ideas silently before sharing—reducing pressure to conform.
Thus, how teams make decisions affects not only the speed and quality
of outcomes but also team dynamics and innovation potential.
(DISCUSSION TA 4) Is it possible that groupthink doesn’t only
occur when groups are highly cohesive, but also when they are pre-cohesive?
Yes, it is possible for groupthink to occur even in pre-cohesive groups—
those that haven’t yet developed strong interpersonal bonds—especially
when certain conditions are present.
While traditional theory (like Janis’s original groupthink model) emphasizes
high cohesiveness as a key condition, later research shows that other
factors can also lead to groupthink-like behavior:
Why it can happen in pre-cohesive groups:
Desire for quick agreement: New or pre-cohesive teams may
avoid conflict to build harmony quickly, leading members to self-
censor and go along with ideas too soon.
Strong leadership influence: If a dominant leader pushes an idea
early, others may conform without much debate—even if they don’t
feel strongly connected to one another yet.
External pressure: In high-stakes or time-pressured environments,
teams (even new ones) may prioritize consensus over quality decision-making.
Lack of psychological safety: If members don’t feel comfortable
speaking up due to unfamiliarity or fear of judgment, they may suppress doubts or concerns. Example:
A newly formed task force in a tech company, assembled to fix a product
flaw before launch, might agree quickly on a solution presented by a
senior engineer. Despite lacking strong internal bonds, the group avoids
dissent to appear efÏcient and united. Later, flaws emerge due to
unchallenged assumptions—an instance of groupthink arising without deep cohesiveness. Conclusion:
While high cohesiveness increases the risk of groupthink, it's not the only
trigger. Premature conformity, poor communication norms, or
strong external or internal pressures can lead even new or loosely
connected teams into groupthink-like decisions.
Marcos Martinez has just been appointed manager of a
production team operating the 11 PM to 7 AM shift in a large
manufacturing fi rm. An experienced manager, Marcos is pleased
that the team members really like and get along well with one
another, but they also appear to be restricting their task outputs
to the minimum acceptable levels. What could Marcos do to
improve things in this situation, and why should he do them?
Marcos Martinez should address the team’s low task output by setting
clear performance goals and expectations to encourage higher
productivity. Although the team has good cohesion and positive
relationships, they seem to be exhibiting social loafing—where members
reduce effort because they feel less accountable. Marcos can improve this
by increasing individual accountability, for example, by assigning specific
roles or tasks to each member and regularly monitoring progress. He
should also motivate the team by recognizing good performance and
offering incentives or rewards to encourage extra effort. Additionally,
Marcos can engage the team in goal-setting and problem-solving to boost
their commitment and sense of ownership. This approach is important
because while cohesion helps with cooperation, without a focus on results,
productivity can suffer. Improving task output will benefit both the team
and the organization by enhancing overall performance and meeting production targets.
How can a manager improve team effectiveness by modifying inputs?
A manager can improve team effectiveness by modifying key inputs such
as the organizational setting, task design, team size, and member
characteristics. For example, ensuring the team has clear goals and
adequate resources creates a supportive organizational setting that
enables success. Designing tasks to be meaningful and challenging
increases motivation and engagement. Adjusting team size to fit the task
helps balance communication and workload—too large can cause
coordination problems, too small may lack skills. Selecting or developing
members with the right skills, experience, and diversity improves
problem-solving and creativity. For instance, a software company forming
a project team might carefully choose members with complementary
technical skills and allocate time for training, which leads to better
collaboration and higher quality results. By modifying these inputs,
managers set the foundation for teams to perform effectively.
What is the relationship among a team’s cohesiveness,
performance norms, and performance results?
A team’s cohesiveness influences how well members follow performance
norms—the group’s standards for effort and behavior. When cohesiveness
is high and norms are positive, team performance improves because
members support and motivate each other. But if norms are negative,
strong cohesiveness can reinforce poor work and hurt results. For
example, a close-knit sales team with high standards usually performs
well, while a close team that accepts low effort performs poorly.
How would a manager know that a team is suffering from
groupthink (give two symptoms), and what could the manager do
about it (give two responses)?
A manager can tell a team is suffering from groupthink if members show
illusion of invulnerability (overconfidence and ignoring risks) and pressure
on dissenters (discouraging opposing views). To fix this, the manager can
encourage open debate by inviting outside opinions and assign a “devil’s
advocate” to challenge ideas and prevent premature consensus.
What makes a self-managing team different from a traditional work team?
A self-managing team is different from a traditional work team because it
takes on responsibilities usually handled by supervisors. Members of a
self-managing team plan, organize, and control their own work, make
decisions, and often handle tasks like scheduling or performance
evaluation. In contrast, a traditional team depends more on a manager to
direct and oversee their tasks. This makes self-managing teams more
flexible, engaged, and often more productive.