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reserved. 1

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Bich Ngoc

Faculty of Human Resources Economics and Management

NEU

Course Objectives

The course is designed to give students the basic

knowledge of human behavior in organizations and how

to apply this knowledge to increase the organization

effectiveness. After taking this class, the students should

all be able to:

➢ Demonstrate an understanding of basic theory and research

related to contemporary issues in organizational behavior.

➢ Demonstrate an understanding of individual behavior and the

links between individual behavior and its social and organizational

context.

➢ Demonstrate ability to apply OB theories to discuss work issues

and to develop constructive proposals for dealing with that issues.

➢ Exhibit analytical, research, teamworking and presentation skills

1-1

COURSE READING MATERIAL

Text book:

➢ S. P. Robbins and T. A. Judge (2017). Organizational Behavior

(Global Edition). Prentice Hall, USA

Reference book

➢ Moorheard, G. and Griffin, R. W., 2012, Managing Organizational

behavior, International Edition, US, South-Western Cengage Learning

➢ John R Schermerhorn, Jr., Richard N. Osborn, James G. Hunt, Mary

Uhl-Bien (2012) Organizational Behavior: International Student

Version (12

Edition). Wiley John & Sons.

➢ Laurie J. Mullins (2016). Management Organizational Behavior (11

Edition). Prentice Hall.

➢ McShane, S. L, Glinow, M. A. V. (2010), Organizational Behavior

Edition) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA

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Course schedule

1-3

Session Topics

Session 1

Introduction and Chapter 1

Session 2

Chapter 2: Diversity in Organizations

Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Session 3

Chapter 5: Personality & Values

Chapter 6: Perception and individual decision making

Session 4,5

Chapter 7: Motivation Concepts

Chapter 8: Motivation: From Concepts to Applications

Session 6

Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior

Chapter 10: Understanding Work Teams

Session 7

Chapter 11: Communication

Session 8

Chapter 12: Leadership

Session 9

Chapter 15: Foundations of Organization structure

Session 10

Chapter 16: Organizational Culture

Session 11,12,13

Group presentation

ASSESSMENT

➢10% Participation in class

➢20% Midterm examination (Individual

test)

➢20% Group assignments

➢50% Final examination

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Unit 1:

Introduction to Organizational Behavior

reserved. 3

Learning Objectives

➢ After studying this unit, you should be able to:

– Identify the functions that comprise the management process

and relate them to organizational behavior.

– Relate organizational behavior to basic managerial roles and

skills.

– Demonstrate the importance of interpersonal skills in the

workplace

– Define organizational behavior (OB).

– Importance and functions of OB

– Identify the major behavioral science disciplines that

contribute to OB.

– Identify the challenges and opportunities managers have in

applying OB concepts.

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Environment

What is an organization?

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Resources

GoalsMechanism

Types of employees

Senior

managers

Line managers

Supervisors

Operatives

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reserved. 4

Organization as an open system

1-9

What Managers Do

➢ They get things done through other people.

➢ Management Activities:

– Make decisions

– Allocate resources

– Direct activities of others to attain goals

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The Nature of Managerial Work

Management’s Contribution to Effectiveness

Feedback

Management

Plans

Organizes

Leads

Controls

To Coordinate

the Behavior of

Individuals

Groups

Organizations

To Attain

Effectiveness of

Individuals

Groups

Organizations

reserved. 5

Management Functions

Control

Lead

Organize

Plan

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Based on your own experiences or observations, provide

examples of each function?

➢ Discovered ten managerial roles

➢ Separated into three groups:

– Interpersonal

– Informational

– Decisional

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

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Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Interpersonal

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Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Informational

1973 by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.

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Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Decisional

1973 by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.

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Katz’s Essential Management Skills

➢ Technical Skills

– The ability to apply specialized

knowledge or expertise

➢ Human Skills

– The ability to work with, understand,

and motivate other people, both

individually and in groups

➢ Conceptual Skills

– The mental ability to analyze and

diagnose complex situations

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1–18

Managerial Skills at Different Organizational Levels

Top

manager

Middle

manager

First-line

manager

Technical

skills

Conceptual skills

Interpersonal

skills

Diagnostic skills

The Importance of Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are important because…

➢‘Good places to work’ have better financial performance.

➢Better interpersonal skills result in lower turnover of

quality employees and higher quality applications for

recruitment.

➢There is a strong association between the quality of

workplace relationships and job satisfaction, stress, and

turnover.

➢It fosters social responsibility awareness.

Organizational Behavior

“OB is the study of human behavior

in organizational settings, the

interface between human behavior

and the organization, and the

organization itself” (Griffin et al.,

2012)

Organizational behavior (OB) is a

field of study that investigates the

impact that individuals, groups, and

structure have on behavior within

organizations for the purpose of

applying such knowledge toward

improving an organization’s

effectiveness.

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Human behavior in

organizational settings

The Organization

The Individual-

Organization Interface

Environment

reserved. 8

Intuition and Systematic Study

• Gut feelings

• Individual observation

• Commonsense

Intuition

• Looks at relationships

• Scientific evidence

• Predicts behaviors

Systematic

Study

The two are complementary means of predicting behavior.

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Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study

➢ Systematic Study of Behavior

– Behavior generally is predictable if we know how the person

perceived the situation and what is important to him or her.

➢ Evidence-Based Management (EBM)

– Complements systematic study.

– Argues for managers to make decisions based on evidence.

➢ Intuition

– Systematic study and EBM add to intuition, or those “gut

feelings” about “why I do what I do” and “what makes

others tick.”

– If we make all decisions with intuition or gut instinct, we’re

likely working with incomplete information.

Contributing Disciplines

Psychology

Sociology

Social

Psychology

Anthropology

Many behavioral sciences

have contributed to the

development of

Organizational

Behavior

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Challenges and Opportunities for OB

➢ Globalization

➢ Responding to economic pressure

➢ Diversity workforces

➢ Improving customer service

➢ Using social media at work

➢Improving ethical behavior

➢Enhancing employee well-being at work

➢ Employment options

➢ Innovation and change

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Three Levels of Analysis OB Model

➢ Inputs

– Variables like personality,

group structure, and

organizational culture that

lead to processes.

– Group structure, roles,

and team responsibilities

are typically assigned

immediately before or

after a group is formed.

– Organizational structure

and culture change over

time.

Three Levels of Analysis OB Model

reserved. 10

➢ Processes

– If inputs are like the nouns

in organizational behavior,

processes are like verbs.

– Defined as actions that

individuals, groups, and

organizations engage in as a

result of inputs, and that

lead to certain outcomes.

Three Levels of Analysis OB Model

➢ Outcomes

– Key variables that you want

to explain or predict, and

that are affected by some

other variables.

Three Levels of Analysis OB Model

Outcome Variables

➢Attitudes and stress

– Employee attitudes are the evaluations employees make,

ranging from positive to negative, about objects, people, or

events.

– Stress is an unpleasant psychological process that occurs in

response to environmental pressures.

reserved. 11

Outcome Variables

➢Task performance

– The combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing

your core job tasks is a reflection of your level of task

performance (Routine task performance, Adaptive task

performance, creative task performance)

Outcome Variables

- Counterproductive behavior: employee behaviors that intentionally

hinder organizational goal accomplishment

Outcome Variables

➢Organizational citizenship behavior

– The discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s

formal job requirements, and that contributes to the

psychological and social environment of the workplace, is

called organizational citizenship behavior.

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Outcome Variables

➢Withdrawal behavior

– Withdrawal behavior is the set of actions that employees

take to separate themselves from the organization.

Outcome Variables

➢Group cohesion

– Group cohesion is the extent to which members of a

group support and validate one another at work.

➢Group functioning

– Group functioning refers to the quantity and quality of

a group’s work output.

Outcome Variables

➢Productivity

– An organization is productive if it achieves its goals by

transforming inputs into outputs at the lowest cost. This

requires both effectiveness and efficiency.

➢Survival

– The final outcome is organizational survival, which is

simply evidence that the organization is able to exist and

grow over the long term.

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Implications for Managers

➢Resist the inclination to rely on generalizations;

some provide valid insights into human

behavior, but many are erroneous.

➢Use metrics and situational variables rather

than “hunches” to explain cause-and-effect

relationships.

➢Work on your interpersonal skills to increase

your leadership potential.

Implications for Managers

➢Improve your technical skills and conceptual skills

through training and staying current with OB

trends like “big data”.

➢OB can improve your employees’ work quality and

productivity by showing you how to empower your

employees, design and implement change

programs, improve customer service, and help

your employees balance work-life conflicts.

Summary and Managerial Implications

➢ Managers need to develop their interpersonal skills to

be effective.

➢ OB focuses on how to improve factors that make

organizations more effective.

➢ The best predictions of behavior are made from a

combination of systematic study and intuition.

➢ Situational variables moderate cause-and-effect

relationships – which is why OB theories are

contingent.

➢ There are many OB challenges and opportunities for

managers today.

➢ The textbook is based on the contingent OB model.

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Attitudes and

Job Satisfaction

Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr., Pham Thi Bich Ngoc

Learning Objectives

 Contrast the three components of an attitude.

 Summarize the relationship between attitudes and

behavior.

 Compare the major job attitudes.

 Define job satisfaction.

 Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.

 Identify three outcomes of job satisfaction.

 Identify four employee responses to

dissatisfaction.

Contrast the Three Components of an

Attitude (1 of 2)

 Attitudes are evaluative statements—either favorable or

unfavorable—about objects, people, or events.

– They reflect how we feel about something.

Contrast the Three Components of an

Attitude (2 of 2)

The Components of an Attitude

Summarize the Relationship

Between Attitudes and Behavior (1

of 2)

 The attitudes that people hold determine what they do.

 Festinger: cases of attitude following behavior

illustrate the effects of cognitive dissonance.

 Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility an

individual might perceive between two or more

attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

Compare the Major Job Attitudes (1 of

 Job Satisfaction

 A positive feeling about the job resulting from

an evaluation of its characteristics.

 Job Involvement

 Degree of psychological identification with the

job where perceived performance is important

to self-worth.

 Psychological Empowerment

Belief in the degree of influence over one’s

job, competence, job meaningfulness, and

autonomy.

0 1

2 3

4 5

Compare the Major Job Attitudes (2 of

Organizational Commitment

 Identifying with a particular organization and

its goals and wishing to maintain membership

in the organization.

 Employees who are committed will be less

likely to engage in work withdrawal even if

they are dissatisfied, because they have a

sense of organizational loyalty.

Compare the Major Job Attitudes (3 of

Perceived Organizational Support (POS)

 Degree to which employees believe the

organization values their contribution and cares

about their well-being.

 Higher when rewards are fair, employees are

involved in decision making, and supervisors are

seen as supportive.

 POS is important in countries where power

distance is lower.

Compare the Major Job Attitudes (4 of

 Employee Engagement

 The degree of involvement with, satisfaction

with, and enthusiasm for the job.

 Engaged employees are passionate about

their work and company.

Compare the Major Job Attitudes (5

of 5)

Are these job attitudes really all that distinct?

 No, these attitudes are highly related; and

while there is some distinction, there is also a

lot of overlap that may cause confusion.

Define Job Satisfaction (2 of 5)

 Job Satisfaction

 A positive feeling about a job resulting from an

evaluation of its characteristics.

 Two approaches for measuring job satisfaction are popular

 The single global rating.

 The summation of job facets.

Summarize the Main Causes of

Job Satisfaction

(1 of 3)

 What causes job satisfaction?

 Job conditions

The intrinsic nature of the work itself, social

interactions, and supervision are important

predictors of job satisfaction.

 Personality

People who have positive core self-

evaluations, who believe in their inner worth

and basic competence, are more satisfied

with their jobs than those with negative

core self-evaluations.

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8 9

10 11

Summarize the Main Causes of Job

Satisfaction (3 of 3)

 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

 Corporate social responsibility (CSR): self-

regulated actions to benefit society or the

environment beyond what is required by law.

Includes environmental sustainability

initiatives, nonprofit work, and charitable

giving.

Increasingly affects employee job

satisfaction.

Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

• Job Performance

– Happy workers are more likely to be productive

workers.

• OCB

– People who are more satisfied with their jobs are

more likely to engage in OCB.

• Customer Satisfaction

– Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction

and loyalty.

• Life Satisfaction

– Research shows that job satisfaction is positively

correlated with life satisfaction.

Four Employee Responses

to Dissatisfaction

Four Employee Responses to

Dissatisfaction (2 of 2)

 Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)

 Counterproductive work behavior:

 Absenteeism: the more satisfied you are, the

less likely you are to miss work.

 Turnover:

The Theory of Cognitive

Dissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance depends on

• Importance of elements creating dissonance

• Degree of individual influence over elements

• Rewards involved in dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance

•Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or

between behavior and attitudes.

•Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or “dissonance”

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Personalities and

Values

Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, PhD

Learning Objectives

 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors

that shape it.

 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator (MBTI) personality framework and the Big Five model.

 Discuss how the concepts of core self-evaluation (CSE), self-

monitoring, and proactive personality contribute to the

understanding of personality.

 Describe how the situation affects whether personality predicts

behavior.

Contrast terminal and instrumental values.

 Describe the differences between person-job fit and person-

organization fit.

 Compare Hofstede’s five value dimensions and the GLOBE

framework.

Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the

Factors that Shape It (1 of 4)

 Defining Personality

 Personality is a dynamic concept

describing the growth and

development of a person’s whole

psychological system.

 The sum total of ways in which an

individual reacts to and interacts

with others.

 Personality consists of stable

characteristics which explain why

a person behaves in a particular

way

Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the

Factors that Shape It (2 of 4)

 Measuring Personality

 Managers need to know how to measure

personality.

Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions

and help managers forecast who is best for a

job.

 The most common means of measuring personality

is through self-report surveys.

Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the

Factors that Shape It (3 of 4)

 Personality Determinants

 Is personality the result of heredity or

environment?

 Heredity refers to those factors that were

determined at conception.

The heredity approach argues that the

ultimate explanation of an individual’s

personality is the molecular structure of the

genes, located in the chromosomes.

Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the

Factors that Shape It (4 of 4)

 Early research tried to identify and label enduring personality

characteristics.

 Shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious,

loyal, and timid.

These are personality traits.

The Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator

Personality Types

• Extraverted or Introverted (E or I)

• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)

• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)

• Judging or Perceiving (J or P)

Extraverted Characteristics

 Act first, think/reflect later

 Feel deprived when cutoff from

interaction with the outside world

 Usually open to and motivated

by outside world of people and

things

 Enjoy wide variety and change in

people relationships

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Introverted Characteristics

➢ Think/reflect first, then Act

➢ Regularly require an amount

of "private time" to recharge

batteries

➢ Motivated internally, mind is

sometimes so active it is

"closed" to outside world

➢ Prefer one-to-one

communication and

relationships

Sensing Characteristics

 Mentally live in the Now, attending to

present opportunities

 Using common sense and creating

practical solutions is automatic-

instinctual

 Memory recall is rich in detail of facts

and past events

 Best improvise from past experience

 Like clear and concrete information;

dislike guessing when facts are

"fuzzy"

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Intuitive Characteristics

➢ Mentally live in the Future, attending to

future possibilities

➢ Using imagination and creating/inventing

new possibilities is automatic-instinctual

➢ Memory recall emphasizes patterns,

contexts, and connections

➢ Best improvise from theoretical

understanding

➢ Comfortable with ambiguous, fuzzy data

and with guessing its meaning

Thinking Characteristics

 Instinctively search for facts and

logic in a decision situation

 Naturally notices tasks and work

to be accomplished.

 Easily able to provide an

objective and critical analysis

 Accept conflict as a natural,

normal part of relationships with

people.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Feeling Characteristics

➢ Instinctively employ personal

feelings and impact on people in

decision situations

➢ Naturally sensitive to people needs

and reactions

➢ Naturally seek consensus and

popular opinions

➢ Unsettled by conflict; have almost a

toxic reaction to disharmony.

Judging Characteristics

 Plan many of the details in

advance before moving into

action.

 Focus on task-related action;

complete meaningful segments

before moving on.

 Work best and avoid stress when

keep ahead of deadlines.

 Naturally use targets, dates and

standard routines to manage life.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Perceiving Characteristics

➢ Comfortable moving into action

without a plan; plan on-the-go.

➢ Like to multitask, have variety,

mix work and play.

➢ Naturally tolerant of time

pressure; work best close to the

deadlines.

➢ Instinctively avoid commitments

which interfere with flexibility,

freedom and variety

The Big Five Model

Short Form for the IPIP-NEO

 http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/ipipneo120.htm

Traits That Matter Most to Business Success at Buyout

Companies

Most Important

Less Important

Persistence

Strong oral communication

Attention to detail

Teamwork

Efficiency

Flexibility/adaptability

Analytical skills

Enthusiasm

Setting high standards

Listening skills

Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria

Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

 The Dark Triad Machiavellianism: the degree to which an individual is

pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can

justify means.

Narcissism: the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance,

require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.

Psychopathy: the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or

remorse when their actions cause harm.

Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

 An emerging framework to study dark side traits:

 First, antisocial people are indifferent and callous

toward others.

 Second, borderline people have low self-esteem

and high uncertainty.

Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

 Third, schizotypal individuals are eccentric and

disorganized.

 Fourth, obsessive compulsive people are

perfectionists and can be stubborn, yet they

attend to details, carry a strong work ethic, and

may be motivated by achievement.

 Fifth, avoidant individuals feel inadequate and

hate criticism.

Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB

 Core Self-Evaluation: bottom line conclusions individuals have about

their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.

 Self-Monitoring: measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her

behavior to external, situational factors.

 Proactive Personality: people who identify opportunities, show

initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.

Other Personality Traits

Relevant to OB

 Locus of control

 Machiavellianism

 Self-esteem

 Self-monitoring

 Propensity for risk taking

Locus of Control

Machiavellianism

Conditions Favoring High Machs

• Direct interaction

• Minimal rules and regulations

• Distracting emotions

Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring

Risk-Taking

 High Risk-taking Managers

 Make quicker decisions.

 Use less information to make decisions.

 Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations.

 Low Risk-taking Managers

 Are slower to make decisions.

 Require more information before making decisions.

 Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.

 Risk Propensity

 Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job requirements

should be beneficial to organizations.

The Situation, Personality, and Behavior (1 of 2)

 Situation strength theory: indicates that the way personality translates

into behavior depends on the strength of the situation.

 The degree to which norms, cues, or standards

dictate appropriate behavior.

Clarity: degree to which cues about work duties and

responsibilities are available and clear

Consistency: the extent to which cues regarding work duties

and responsibilities are compatible with one another

Constraints: the extent to which individuals’ freedom to

decide or act is limited by forces outside their control

Consequences: the degree to which decisions or actions have

important implications for the organization or its members,

clients, supplies, and so on.

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Contrast Terminal and Instrumental Values

(1 of 3)

 Values: basic convictions about what is right, good, or desirable.

 Value system: ranks values in terms of intensity.

 The Importance and Organization of Values

 Values:

Lay the foundation for understanding of

attitudes and motivation.

Influence attitudes and behaviors.

Contrast Terminal and Instrumental Values

(2 of 3)

 Terminal vs. Instrumental Values

 Terminal values: desirable

end-states of existence.

 Instrumental values:

preferred modes of

behavior or means of

achieving terminal values.

Contrast Terminal and Instrumental Values

(3 of 3)

Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce

Cohort

Entered the

Workforce

Approximate

Current Age

Dominant Work Values

Boomers

1965

–1985

50s to 70s

Success, achievement,

ambition, dislike of

authority; loyalty to career

Xers

1985

–2000

Mid

-30s to 50s

Work

-life balance, team-

oriented, dislike of rules;

loyalty to relationships

Millennials

2000 to present

To mid

-30s

Confident, financial

success, self

-reliant but

team

-oriented; loyalty to

both self and relationships

Values in

the Rokeach

Survey

Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human

Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).

Values in

the Rokeach

Survey

(cont’d)

Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human

Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).

Mean Value Rankings of

Executives, Union Members,

and Activists

Source: Based on W. C. Frederick and J. Weber, “The Values of

Corporate Managers and Their Critics: An Empirical Description and

Normative Implicatio ns,” in W. C. Frederick and L. E. Preston (eds.)

Business Ethics: Research Issues and Empirical Studies (Greenwich,

CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 123–44.

Importance of Values

 Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of

individuals and cultures.

 Influence our perception of the world around us.

 Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong.”

 Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others.

Person-Job Fit vs. Person-Organization Fit (1

of 3)

Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations

Type

Personality Characteristics

Congruent Occupations

Realistic:

Prefers physical activities

that require skill, strength, and

coordination

Shy, genuine, persistent, stable,

conforming, practical

Mechanic, drill press operator,

assembly

-line worker, farmer

Investigative:

Prefers activities that

involve thinking, organizing, and

understanding

Analytical, original, curious,

independent

Biologist, economist,

mathematician, news reporter

Social:

Prefers activities that involve

helping and developing others

Sociable, friendly, cooperative,

understanding

Social worker, teacher,

counselor, clinical psychologist

Conventional:

Prefers rule-regulated,

orderly, and unambiguous activities

Conforming, efficient, practical,

unimaginative, inflexible

Accountant, corporate

manager, bank teller, file clerk

Enterprising:

Prefers verbal activities

in which there are opportunities to

influence others and attain power

Self

-confident, ambitious,

energetic, domineering

Lawyer, real estate agent,

public relations specialist,

small business manager

Artistic:

Prefers ambiguous and

unsystematic activities that allow

creative expression

Imaginative, disorderly,

idealistic, emotional,

impractical

Painter, musician, writer,

interior decorator

Person-Job Fit vs. Person-Organization Fit (2

of 3)

 Person-Organization Fit

 People high on extraversion fit well with

aggressive and team-oriented cultures.

 People high on agreeableness match up better

with a supportive organizational climate than one

focused on aggressiveness.

 People high on openness to experience fit better in

organizations that emphasize innovation rather

than standardization.

Person-Job Fit vs. Person-Organization Fit

(3 of 3)

 Other Dimensions of Fit

– Although person-job fit and person-organization

fit are considered the most salient dimensions for

workplace outcomes, other avenues of fit are

worth examining.

▪ Person-group fit

▪ Person-supervisor fit

Hofstede’s Five Value Dimensions

 Hofstede’s Framework

 Power distance

 Individualism versus collectivism

 Masculinity versus femininity

 Uncertainty avoidance

 Long-term versus short-term

orientation

Hofstede’s Framework for

Assessing Cultures

Power Distance

The extent to which a society accepts that

power in institutions and organizations is

distributed unequally.

Low

distance: relatively equal power

between those with status/wealth and those

without status/wealth

High

distance: extremely unequal power

distribution between those with

status/wealth and those without

status/wealth

Hofstede’s Framework

(cont’d)

Collectivism

A tight social framework in

which people expect

others in groups of which

they are a part to look

after them and protect

them.

Individualism

The degree to which

people prefer to act as

individuals rather than

a member of groups.

Vs.

Hofstede’s Framework

(cont’d)

Masculinity

The extent to which the

society values work roles

of achievement, power,

and control, and where

assertiveness and

materialism are also

valued.

Femininity

The extent to which

there is little

differentiation

between roles for

men and women.

Vs.

Hofstede’s Framework

(cont’d)

Uncertainty Avoidance

The extent to which a society feels threatened by

uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to

avoid them.

•High Uncertainty Avoidance:

Society does not like

ambiguous situations & tries to

avoid them.

•Low Uncertainty Avoidance:

Society does not mind

ambiguous situations &

embraces them.

Hofstede’s Framework

(cont’d)

Long-term Orientation

A national culture

attribute that

emphasizes the future,

thrift, and persistence.

Short-term Orientation

A national culture attribute

that emphasizes the

present and the here and

now.

Vs.

The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Culture

 The Global Leadership and Organizational

Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research

program updated Hofstede’s research.

 Data from 825 organizations and 62 countries.

 Used variables similar to Hofstede’s.

 Added some news ones.

Perception and Individual Decision

Making

Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Bich Ngoc

National Economics University

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• EXPLAIN THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION.

• DESCRIBE ATTRIBUTION THEORY.

• EXPLAIN THE LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND DECISION

MAKING.

• CONTRAST THE RATIONAL MODEL OF DECISION MAKING WITH

BOUNDED RATIONALITY AND INTUITION.

• EXPLAIN HOW INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND

ORGANIZATIONAL CONSTRAINTS AFFECT DECISION MAKING.

WHAT IS PERCEPTION, AND WHY IS IT

IMPORTANT?

….A process by which we

assign causes or motives to

explain people’s behavior

….an explanation of the cause of behavior:

how people explain the causes of their own

and other people’s behavior

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION

ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Distinctiveness:

Consensus

Consistency

That determination however depends on 3 factors:

EXPLAIN ATTRIBUTION THEORY (2 OF 10)

• CLARIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

CAUSATION

• INTERNALLY CAUSED – THOSE THAT ARE BELIEVED TO BE

UNDER THE PERSONAL CONTROL OF THE INDIVIDUAL.

• EXTERNALLY CAUSED – RESULTING FROM OUTSIDE

CAUSES.

EXPLAIN ATTRIBUTION THEORY (3 OF 10)

EXAMPLE

ERRORS AND BIASES IN ATTRIBUTIONS

(CONT’D)

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN

JUDGING OTHERS

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING

OTHERS

Recency Effects

The tendency to remember

recent information. If the recent

information is negative, the

person or object is evaluated

negatively

FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN

JUDGING OTHERS

APPLICATIONS OF SHORTCUTS IN

ORGANIZATIONS

• EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

• EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT INTERVIEWERS MAKE

PERCEPTUAL JUDGMENTS THAT ARE OFTEN

INACCURATE.

• INTERVIEWERS GENERALLY DRAW EARLY IMPRESSIONS

THAT BECOME VERY QUICKLY ENTRENCHED.

• STUDIES INDICATE THAT MOST INTERVIEWERS’

DECISIONS CHANGE VERY LITTLE AFTER THE FIRST

FOUR OR FIVE MINUTES OF THE INTERVIEW.

APPLICATIONS OF SHORTCUTS IN

ORGANIZATIONS

• PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS

• EVIDENCE DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE WILL ATTEMPT TO

VALIDATE THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF REALITY, EVEN WHEN

THOSE PERCEPTIONS ARE FAULTY.

• SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY, OR THE PYGMALION

EFFECT, CHARACTERIZES THE FACT THAT PEOPLE’S

EXPECTATIONS DETERMINE THEIR BEHAVIOR.

• EXPECTATIONS BECOME REALITY.

APPLICATIONS OF SHORTCUTS IN

ORGANIZATIONS

• PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

• AN EMPLOYEE’S PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL IS VERY MUCH

DEPENDENT UPON THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS.

• MANY JOBS ARE EVALUATED IN SUBJECTIVE TERMS.

• SUBJECTIVE MEASURES ARE PROBLEMATIC BECAUSE OF

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION, CONTRAST EFFECTS, HALO

EFFECTS, AND SO ON.

LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND

DECISION MAKING

• INDIVIDUALS MAKE DECISIONS – CHOOSING FROM TWO OR MORE

ALTERNATIVES.

• DECISION MAKING OCCURS AS A REACTION TO A PROBLEM.

• THERE IS A DISCREPANCY BETWEEN SOME CURRENT STATE

OF AFFAIRS AND SOME DESIRED STATE, REQUIRING

CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION.

• ONE PERSON’S PROBLEM IS ANOTHER’S SATISFACTORY

STATE OF AFFAIRS.

LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTIONS AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING

STEPS IN THE RATIONAL DECISION-

MAKING MODEL

RATIONAL MODEL OF DECISION MAKING

• ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RATIONAL MODEL

• THE DECISION MAKER…

• HAS COMPLETE INFORMATION.

• IS ABLE TO IDENTIFY ALL THE RELEVANT OPTIONS IN

AN UNBIASED MANNER.

• CHOOSES THE OPTION WITH THE HIGHEST UTILITY.

• MOST DECISIONS IN THE REAL WORLD DON’T FOLLOW THE RATIONAL

MODEL.

BOUNDED RATIONALITY

• MOST PEOPLE RESPOND TO A COMPLEX PROBLEM BY

REDUCING IT TO A LEVEL AT WHICH IT CAN BE READILY

UNDERSTOOD.

• PEOPLE SATISFICE – THEY SEEK SOLUTIONS THAT ARE

SATISFACTORY AND SUFFICIENT.

• INDIVIDUALS OPERATE WITHIN THE CONFINES OF

BOUNDED RATIONALITY.

• THEY CONSTRUCT SIMPLIFIED MODELS THAT EXTRACT

THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES.

HOW DOES BOUNDED RATIONALITY

WORK?

• ONCE A PROBLEM IS IDENTIFIED, THE SEARCH FOR CRITERIA

AND OPTIONS BEGINS.

• A LIMITED LIST OF THE MORE CONSPICUOUS CHOICES

IS IDENTIFIED.

• THE DECISION MAKER THEN REVIEWS THE LIST,

LOOKING FOR A SOLUTION THAT IS “GOOD

ENOUGH.”

INTUITION

• INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING OCCURS OUTSIDE

CONSCIOUS THOUGHT; IT RELIES ON HOLISTIC

ASSOCIATIONS, OR LINKS BETWEEN DISPARATE PIECES OF

INFORMATION, IS FAST, AND IS AFFECTIVELY CHARGED,

MEANING IT USUALLY ENGAGES THE EMOTIONS.

• THE KEY IS NEITHER TO ABANDON NOR RELY SOLELY ON

INTUITION, BUT TO SUPPLEMENT IT WITH EVIDENCE AND

GOOD JUDGMENT.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, ORGANIZATIONAL

CONSTRAINTS, AND DECISION MAKING (1 OF 2)

• INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

• PERSONALITY

• GENDER

• MENTAL ABILITY

• CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

• NUDGING

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, ORGANIZATIONAL

CONSTRAINTS, AND DECISION MAKING (2 OF 2)

• ORGANIZATIONAL CONSTRAINTS

• PERFORMANCE EVALUATION SYSTEMS

• REWARD SYSTEMS

• FORMAL REGULATIONS

• SYSTEM-IMPOSED TIME CONSTRAINTS

• HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS

DESCRIBE THE THREE-STAGE MODEL OF CREATIVITY (1 OF 2)

• CREATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE NOVEL

AND USEFUL IDEAS.

• THESE ARE IDEAS THAT ARE

DIFFERENT FROM WHAT HAS BEEN

DONE BEFORE, BUT THAT ARE ALSO

APPROPRIATE TO THE PROBLEM.

COMMON ATTRIBUTES OF CREATIVE

INDIVIDUALS

• BACKGROUND EXPERIENCES AND CREATIVITY

• PERSONAL TRAITS AND CREATIVITY: OPENNESS, AN ATTRACTION TO

COMPLEXITY, HIGH LEVELS OF ENERGY, AUTONOMY, SELF-

CONFIDENCE

• COGNITIVE ABILITIES AND CREATIVITY:

• INDIVIDUAL’S POWER TO THINK INTELLIGENTLY AND

TO ANALYZE SITUATIONS AND DATA EFFECTIVELY.

• INTELLIGENCE: PRECONDITION FOR INDIVIDUAL

CREATIVITY

• CREATIVITY LINKS WITH THE ABILITY TO THINK

DIVERGENTLY (SEE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

SITUATIONS) AND CONVERGENTLY (SEE SIMILARITIES

BETWEEN SITUATIONS)

HOW TO FACILITATE INDIVIDUAL

CREATIVITY…

⚫ Leaders

⚫ Support new ideas

⚫ Good listener

⚫ Favourable and cooperative working

environment

▪ Respect diversity

▪ Friendly and cooperative

▪Trust

Foundation of Group

Behavior

INSTRUCTOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR., PHAM THI BICH NGOC

NEU

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

 Distinguish between the different types of groups.

 Describe model of group development.

 Show how role requirements change in different

situations.

 Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an

individual’s behavior.

 Show how status and size differences affect group

performance.

 Describe how issues of cohesiveness and diversity

can be integrated for group effectiveness.

 Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group

decision making.

Defining Groups

 Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent,

who have come together to achieve particular objectives

 Two or more people who interact with one another such

that each person influences and is influenced by each

other person

 Any number of people who (1) interact with one another;

(2) are psychologically aware of one another; and (3)

perceive themselves to be a group.

Classifying Groups

(cont’d)

Relatively permanent

Relatively temporary

formal

informal

Functions of formal group

The Five Stages of Group

Development

1. Forming

2. Storming

3. Norming Stage

4. Performing Stage

5. Adjourning Stage

0 1

2 3

4 5

Group Properties/Group Performance

Factors

Group

Performa

nce

Norms

Statu

Compositi

Size

Cohesive

ness

Roles

Group Property 1: Roles

 Role

 A set of expected behavior patterns

attributed to someone occupying a

given position in a social unit

 is the expected pattern of behaviors

associated with members occupying a

particular position within the structure of

the organization.

Group Property 1: Roles

 Role Perception

 An individual’s view of how he or she is

supposed to act in a given situation –

received by external stimuli

 Role Expectations

 How others believe a person should act in

a given situation

 Role conflict

 A situation in which an individual is confronted

by divergent role expectations

Group Property 1: Roles

 Role conflict can result in role stress

 Role ambiguity occurs when there is lack of clarity as

to the precise requirements of the role and the person is

unsure what to do

 Role overload is when a person faces too many

separate roles or too great a variety of expectations.

 Role underload can arise when the prescribed role

expectations fall short of the person’s perception of their

role

Group Property 2: Norms

 Group Norms

 Acceptable standards of behavior within a

group that are shared by the group’s

members

 Are the standards against which the

appropriateness of the behaviors of members

are judged

 Determine behavior expected in a certain

situation

Group Property 2: Norms

 Is an assumption or expectation held by group

members concerning what kind of behavior is:

 Right or wrong

 Good or bad

 Allowed or not allowed

 Appropriate or not appropriate

 Classes of Norms

 Performance norms -

 Appearance norms –

 Social arrangement norms –

 Allocation of resources norms

 Improvement and change norms

6 7

8 9

10 11

Group Property 3: Status

A socially defined position or rank given to groups

or group members by others – it differentiates

group members

 Important factor in understanding behavior

 Significant motivator

Status Characteristics Theory

 Status derived from one of three sources:

 Power a person has over others

 Ability to contribute to group goals

 Personal characteristics

Status Effects

 On Norms and Conformity

 High-status members are less restrained by norms

and pressure to conform

 Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status

members so long as it doesn’t affect group goal

achievement

 On Group Interaction

 High-status members are more assertive

 Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and

creativity

Group Property 4: Size

 Is the number of members of the group

 Twelve or more members is a “large” group

 Seven or fewer is a “small” group

 Affects resources available to perform the

task

 Affects degree of formalization of

interactions, communication, and

participation

 Can increase the degree of social loafing

Group Property 4: Size

 Best use of a group:

Attribute Small Large

Speed X

Individual Performance X

Problem Solving X

Diverse Input X

Fact-finding Goals X

Overall Performance X

Group Property 4: Size

 Factors that Determine Ideal Group Size

 Group members’ ability

 Maturity of individual group members

 Group tasks

 Ability of the group leader

Group Property 5:

Cohesiveness

 Is the extent to which a group is committed to

staying together

 Degree to which group members are attracted to

each other and are motivated to stay in the

group

12 13

14 15

16 17

Factors contributing to

group cohesiveness

Group Property 6 -

Composition

The degree of similarity or difference among group

members on factors important to the group’s work

Homogeneity

Degree to which members are similar in one or

several ways that are critical to the group’s work

Heterogeneity

Degree to which members differ in one or more

ways that are critical to the group’s work

Group Decision Making

 Strengths of group decision making:

 More complete information and

knowledge

 Increased diversity of views

 Increased acceptance of solutions

 Weaknesses of group decision making:

 Time consuming

 Conformity pressures

 Dominance of a few members

 Ambiguous responsibility

Group Decision Making

 Effectiveness and efficiency of group

decisions:

 Accuracy (group)

 Speed (individual)

 Creativity (group)

 Acceptance (group)

Group Decision Making

(cont’d)

 Groupthink

 A mode of thinking that occurs when members of a

group are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group

and the desire for unanimity offsets their motivation

to appraise alternative courses of action

 Effects of Groupthink

 Consideration of and focus on fewer alternatives

 Failure to perceive non-obvious risks and drawbacks

of an alternative

 Rejection of expert opinions

 Ignoring potential for setbacks or actions of

competitors in not developing contingency plans

18 19

20 21

22 23

Group Decision Making

 Most group decision making takes place in

interacting groups.

 Members meet face-to-face and rely on

both verbal and nonverbal interaction

to communicate with each other.

 Interacting groups often censor themselves

and pressure individual members toward

conformity of opinion.

Group Decision Making

 Brainstorming can overcome pressures for

conformity.

 In a brainstorming session:

The group leader states the problem.

Members then “free-wheel” as many

alternatives as they can.

No criticism is allowed.

One idea stimulates others, and group

members are encouraged to “think

the unusual.”

Group Decision Making

 The nominal group technique: restricts

discussion or interpersonal communication

during the decision making process.

 Nominal groups outperform brainstorming

groups.

Group Decision Making

 Steps for a nominal group:

 Each member independently writes

down his/her ideas on the problem.

 After this silent period, each member

presents one idea to the group.

 The ideas are discussed for clarity.

 Each group member rank-orders the

ideas.

 The idea with the highest aggregate

ranking determines the final decision.

Evaluating Group

Effectiveness

Type of Group

Effectiveness Criteria Interacting

Brain-

storming

Nominal Electronic

Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High

Social Pressure High Low Moderate Low

Money Costs Low Low Low High

Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

Task Orientation Low High High High

Potential for Interpersonal

Conflict

High Low Moderate Moderate

Commitment to Solution High N/A Moderate Moderate

Development of Group

Cohesiveness

High High Moderate Low

24 25

26 27

Understanding Work Teams

Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, PhD.

NEU

Learning Objectives

➢ Analyze the continued popularity of teams in

organizations.

➢ Contrast groups and teams.

➢ Contrast the five types of team arrangements.

➢ Identify the characteristics of effective teams.

➢ Explain how organizations can create team players.

➢Decide when to use individuals instead of teams.

Analyze the Growing Popularity of Teams in

Organizations

➢ Why are teams popular?

– Teams can achieve feats an individual could never

accomplish.

– Teams are flexible and responsive to changing events.

– They can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and

disband.

– They are an effective means to democratize

organizations and increase employee involvement.

– They introduce a collaborative mindset.

Differences Between Groups and Teams

Comparing Workgroups and Work Teams

Types of Teams

➢ Problem-Solving Teams

– Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the

same department who meet for a few

hours each week to discuss ways of

improving quality, efficiency, and the

work environment

➢ Self-Managed Work Teams

– Groups of 10 to 15 people who take

on the responsibilities of their former

supervisors

More Types of Teams

➢ Cross-Functional Teams

– Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from

different work areas, who come together to accomplish a

task

– Very common

– Task forces

– Committees

➢ Work teams

➢ Management teams

A Final Type of Team

➢ Virtual Teams

– Teams that use computer technology to tie

together physically dispersed members in

order to achieve a common goal

➢ Characteristics

– Limited socializing

– The ability to overcome time and space

constraints

➢ To be effective, needs:

– Trust among members

– Close monitoring

– To be publicized

A Team-Effectiveness Model

Creating Effective Teams: Context

➢ Adequate Resources

– Need the tools to complete the job

➢ Effective Leadership and Structure

– Agreeing to the specifics of work and how the team fits

together to integrate individual skills

– Even “self-managed” teams need leaders

– Leadership especially important in multi-team systems

➢ Climate of Trust

– Members must trust each other and the leader

➢ Performance and Rewards Systems that Reflect Team

Contributions

– Cannot just be based on individual effort

Creating Effective Teams: Composition

How should teams be staffed?

➢ Abilities of Members

– Need technical expertise, problem-solving, decision-making,

and good interpersonal skills

➢ Personality of Members

– Conscientiousness, openness to experience, and

agreeableness all relate to team performance

➢ Allocating Roles and Diversity

– Many necessary roles must be filled

– Diversity can often lead to lower performance

➢ Size of Team

– The smaller the better: 5 to 9 is optimal

➢ Member’s Preference for Teamwork

– Do the members want to be on teams?

Key Roles On Teams

Creating Effective Teams: Process

➢ Commitment to a Common Purpose

– Create a common purpose that provides direction

– Have reflexivity: willing to adjust plan if necessary

➢ Establishment of Specific Team Goals

– Must be specific, measurable, realistic, and challenging

➢ Team Efficacy

– Team believes in its ability to succeed

➢ Mental Models

– Have an accurate and common mental map of how the work gets

done

➢ A Managed Level of Conflict

– Task conflicts are helpful; interpersonal conflicts are not

➢ Minimized Social Loafing

– Team holds itself accountable both individually and as a team

Turning Individuals into Team Players

Creating Team Players

➢ Selection

– Make team skills one of the interpersonal skills in the hiring

process.

➢ Training

– Individualistic people can learn

➢ Rewards

– Rework the reward system to encourage cooperative efforts

rather than competitive (individual) ones

– Continue to recognize individual contributions while still

emphasizing the importance of teamwork

Beware! Teams Aren’t Always the Answer

Teams take more time and resources than does individual

work.

➢Three tests to see if a team fits the situation:

1. Is the work complex and is there a need for different

perspectives: will it be better with the insights of more than

one person?

2. Does the work create a common purpose or set of goals for

the group that is larger than the aggregate of the goals for

individuals?

3. Are members of the group involved in interdependent

tasks?

Costs of Teams in Organizations

Difficulties in

changing to a

team-based

organization

Cumbersome and lengthy

team development process

Employee resistance

to role changes

Managerial sense of loss

of usefulness

Managerial role

confusion/frustration

Losses due to premature

abandonment of the process

Benefits of Teams in Organizations

Enhanced

performance

Organizational

enhancements

Employee

benefits

Reduced

costs

Team-Based

Environment Benefits

Benefits of Teams in Organizations

Enhanced

performance

Organizational

enhancements

Employee

benefits

Reduced

costs

Team-Based

Environment Benefits

COMMUNICATION

INSTRUCTOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR. PHAM THI BICH NGOC

NEU

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)

 Describe the functions and process

of communication.

 Contrast downward, upward, and lateral

communication through small-group networks

and the grapevine.

 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal

communication.

 Describe how channel richness underlies the

choice of communication channel.

 Differentiate between automatic and controlled

processing of persuasive messages.

 Identify common barriers to effective communication.

 Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-

cultural communication

What is Communication?

 Communication

 The transference and understanding of meaning

The Communication

Process

Describe the Functions and Process

of Communication (1 of 7)

Communication serves five major

functions within a group or organization:

 Management

 Feedback

 Emotional sharing

 Persuasion

 Information exchange

Describe the Functions and Process

of Communication (2 of 7)

Communication acts to manage member

behavior in several ways.

 Authority hierarchies and formal

guidelines.

 Job descriptions and company

policies.

 Workgroup teasing or harassing.

0 1

2 3

4 5

Communication Channels

 Channel

 The medium selected by the sender through which

the message travels to the receiver

 Types of Channels

 Formal Channels

 Informal Channels

Direction of

Communication

Upward

Downward

Lateral

Three Common Formal

Small-Group Networks

 Chain:

 Rigidly follows the chain of command

 Each member communicates with the person above

and below, except for the individuals on each end

who communicate with only one person

 Wheel:

 Information flows between the person at the end of

each spoke and the person in the middle

 Circle Network

 Each member communicates with the people on

both sides but with no one else

 All Channel:

 All group members communicate actively with each

other

Communication networks

Criteria

Networks

Chain

Networks

Wheel

Networks

All

-Channel

Speed

Moderate

Fast

Accuracy

High

Moderate

Emergence of a

leader

Moderate

High

None

Member satisfaction

Moderate

Low

High

The Grapevine

 Three Main Grapevine Characteristics

1. Informal, not controlled by management

2. Perceived by most employees as being more

believable and reliable than formal

communications

3. Largely used to serve the self-interests of those

who use it

 Results from:

 Desire for information about important situations

 Ambiguous conditions

 Conditions that cause anxiety

 Insightful to managers

 Serves employee’s social needs

Reducing Rumors

1. Announce timetables for making important

decisions

2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may

appear inconsistent or secretive

3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the

upside, of current decisions and future plans

4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—they

are almost never as anxiety-provoking as

the unspoken fantasy

6 7

8 9

10 11

Communication Networks

(cont’d)

 Characteristics of Communication Networks

 Networks form spontaneously as interactions among

workers continue

 Networks rarely are permanent

 Task is crucial to the choice of a network pattern

 Environment affects the frequency and types of

interactions among members

 Personal factors and group performance factors

influence communication networks

 Networks strongly influence group effectiveness

 Electronic groups that have little face-to-face

communication are an emerging trend

Communication Networks

(cont’d)

 Organizational Communication Networks

 Communication and information flows do not

necessarily follow the lines of an organization chart

 Downward communication provides directions

 Upward communication provides feedback

 Horizontal communication is related to task

performance

Methods of Communication

 Oral Communication

 Written Communication

 Nonverbal Communication

Methods of Communication

Allocation of Time at Work for Managers and Professionals

Source: Based on M. Chui et al., “The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies,”

McKinsey and Company, July 2012, http://www.mckinsey.com.

Methods of Communication

Note: CareerBuilder surv ey of over 2,000 hiring professionals.

Source: Based on CareerBuilder at

http://www.careerbuilder.com/JobPoster/Resources/page.aspx?pagever=2012SocialMedia&template=none.

12 13

14 15

16 17

Methods of Communication

Nonverbal Communication

 Includes body movements, the intonations or

emphasis we give to words, facial expressions,

and the physical distance between the sender

and receiver.

 Body language can convey status, level of

engagement, and emotional state.

Advantages: Supports other communications and

provides observable expression of emotions and

feelings

Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or

gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of

message

Nonverbal

Communication

Facial

Expressions

Physical

Movements

Body

Language

Environmental

Elements

Elements of Nonverbal

Communication

Nonverbal Communication

Physical distance also has meaning.

 What is considered proper spacing between

people largely depends on cultural norms.

A businesslike distance in some European

countries feels intimate in many parts of

North America.

 Distance may indicate aggressiveness or

sexual interest, or it may signal disinterest or

displeasure with what is being said.

Methods of Communication

 Choice Considerations

 Audience (physical or not physical presence)

 Nature of the message (urgency and secrecy)

 Costs of transmission

Channel Richness and Choice

of Communication Channel (1 of 4)

Sources: Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort

Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), 311.

Channel Richness and Choice

of Communication Channel (2 of 4)

The choice of channel depends on whether the

message is routine.

 Routine messages tend to be straightforward

and have a minimum of ambiguity.

Choose oral communication when you need

to gauge the receiver’s receptivity.

Written communication is more reliable for

complex and lengthy communications.

18 19

20 21

22 23

Barriers to Effective

Communication

 Filtering

 A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be

seen more favorably by the receiver

 Selective Perception

 People selectively interpret what they see on the basis

of their interests, background, experience, and

attitudes

 Information Overload

 A condition in which information inflow exceeds an

individual’s processing capacity

 Emotions

 How a receiver feels at the time a message is received

will influence how the message is interpreted

More Barriers to Effective

Communication

 Language

 Words have different meanings to different people

 Communication Apprehension

 Undue tension and anxiety about oral

communication, written communication, or both

 Gender Differences

 Men tend to talk to emphasize status while women

talk to create connections

Communication Barriers and Cultural

Context

High-

vs.

Low-

Cont

ext

Cultu

res

Overcoming Problems in

Cross-

Cultural Communication (3 of 3)

A Cultural Guide

 Know yourself.

 Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness,

and democracy.

 State facts, not your interpretation.

 Consider the other person’s viewpoint.

 Proactively maintain the identity of the group.

24 25

26 27

Leadership

Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, Assoc. Prof., Dr.

NEU

What Is Leadership?

 Leadership

 The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of

goals

 Not all leaders are managers, nor are all managers leaders.

 Is a property—the set of characteristics attributed to someone

who is perceived to use influence successfully

 Is influence—the ability to affect the perceptions, beliefs,

attitudes, motivation, and/or behavior of others

 Management

 Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain

compliance from organizational members

 Both are necessary for organizational success

Trait Approaches to

Leadership

 Trait Approaches to Leadership

 Attempts to identify stable and enduring character traits

that differentiate effective leaders from non-leaders

focusing on:

 Identifying leadership traits

 Developing methods for measuring them

 Using the methods to select leaders

 Current limited set of leadership traits

 Emotional intelligence, drive, motivation; honesty and

integrity, self-confidence, cognitive ability, knowledge of the

business, charisma

 Traits can predict leadership, but they are better at

predicting leader emergence than effectiveness.

Behavioral Approaches of

Leadership

 Proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders

from non-leaders

 Behavioral theories of leadership imply we can train

people to be leaders.

Behavioral Approaches to

Leadership

The Michigan

Studies

The Ohio State

Studies

The Leadership

Grid

Early Studies in Behavioral

Approaches to Leadership

The Michigan Studies

Two key dimensions of leader

behavior:

Employee-oriented/ Employee-

centered

Production-oriented / Job-

centered

0 1

2 3

4 5

The Ohio State Studies

Found two key dimensions of leader

behavior:

Initiating structure

Consideration

Both are important

The Leadership Grid

 Provides a means for evaluating leadership styles and then training

managers to move toward an ideal style of behavior

 Draws on both studies to assess leadership style

 “Concern for People” is Consideration and Employee-Orientation

 “Concern for Production” is Initiating Structure and Production-

Orientation

 Style is determined by position on the graph

Source: The Leadership Grid Figure

from Leadership Dilemmas—Grid

Solutions by Robert R. Blake and Anne

Adams McCanse. (Formerly the

Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake

and Jane S. Mouton.) Houston: Gulf

Publishing Company, p. 29. Copyright

1997 by Grid International, Inc.

Reproduced by permission of Grid

International, Inc.

The Leadership

Grid

The Emergence of Contingency

Leadership Models

 While trait and behavior theories do help us understand

leadership, an important component is missing: the environment

in which the leader exists

 Situational leadership theories deals with this additional aspect

of leadership effectiveness studies

 Assume that appropriate leader behavior varies from one

situation to another situation

 Seek to identify how key situational factors interact to

determine appropriate leader behavior

 Three key theories:

 Fielder’s Model

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

 Path-Goal Theory

The Fiedler contingency model

6 7

8 9

10 11

Hersey-Blanchard Situational

Leadership

Unable

Unwilling

Unable

Willing

Able

Unwilling

Able

Willing

Degree of follower’s readiness to assume personal responsibility:

Telling:

Instructing &

supervising

Selling:

Explaining &

clarifying

Participating:

Sharing &

facilitating

Delegating:

Coaching &

assisting

Leadership behavior appropriate to the situation

Leader–Member Exchange

Theory

LMX Model

 How groups are assigned is unclear

 Follower characteristics determine group membership

 Leaders control by keeping favorites close

 Research has been generally supportive

Contemporary Approaches to Leadership

 Charismatic Leadership

 Transformational, Transactional Leadership

Reference: David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman, “Beyond the Charismatic Leader: Leadership and

Organizational Change,” California Management Review, Winter 1990, pp. 70–97.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Transactional Leader

Contingent Reward:

Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises

rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.

Management by Exception (active):

Watches and searches for deviations

from rules and standards, takes corrective action.

Management by Exception (passive):

Intervenes only if standards are not

met.

Laissez

-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions

Transformational Leader

Idealized Influence:

Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains

respect and trust.

Inspirational Motivation:

Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to

focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.

Intellectual Stimulation:

Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful

problem solving.

Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee

individually, coaches, advises

12 13

14 15

16 17

Role of Leaders in Creating Ethical Organizations (2

of 3)

Ethical Leadership

Ethics touches on leadership at a number of

junctures.

Efforts have been made to combine ethical

and charismatic leadership into an idea of

socialized charismatic leadership – leadership

that conveys other-centered values by

leaders who model ethical conduct.

Role of Leaders in Creating Ethical Organizations (3

of 3)

Servant Leadership

Servant leaders go beyond their self-

interest and instead focus on

opportunities to help followers grow

and develop.

Characteristic behaviors include

listening, empathizing, persuading,

accepting stewardship, and actively

developing followers’ potential.

Challenges to our Understanding of Leadership (2 of

Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership

Defining Characteristics

Relationship

-Oriented

Leadership

Task

-Oriented

Leadership

Individual

Black

Experience/training

No effect on

Substitutes for

Professionalism

Substitutes for

Indifference to rewards

Neutralizes

Job

Black

Highly structured task

No effect on

Substitutes for

Provides its own

feedback

No effect on

Substitutes for

Intrinsically satisfying

Substitutes for

No effect on

Organization

Black

Explicit formalized goals

No effect on

Substitutes for

Rigid rules and

procedures

No effect on

Substitutes for

Cohesive work groups

Substitutes for

Challenges to our Understanding of Leadership (3 of 5)

 Online Leadership

 Needs more research.

 Today’s managers and employees are

increasingly linked by networks rather than

geographic proximity.

Online leaders have to think carefully

about what actions they want their digital

messages to initiate.

Identification-based trust is difficult to

achieve without face-to-face interaction.

Writing skills are likely to become an

extension of interpersonal skills.

Challenges to our Understanding of Leadership (4 of 5)

Selecting Leaders

Identifying effective leaders:

Review specific requirements for the

position.

Consider personality tests to identify

leadership traits.

Situation-specific experience is relevant.

Plan for a change in leadership.

Challenges to our Understanding of Leadership (5 of 5)

Training Leaders

– Leadership training is likely to be more successful

with high self-monitors.

– Teach implementation skills.

– Teach trust building, mentoring, and situational-

analysis.

– Behavioral training through modeling exercises

can increase an individual’s charismatic

leadership qualities.

– Review leadership after key organizational events.

– Train in transformational leadership skills.

18 19

20 21

22 23

Emerging Issues in

Leadership (cont’d)

 Strategic Leadership

 Requires that leaders be capable of:

 Understanding the complexities of both the organization and its environment

 Leading change in the organization to achieve and maintain a superior

alignment between the organization and its environment

 Managerial requirements:

 Encompassing understanding of the organization

 Firm grasp of the organization’s environment

 Awareness of firm’s alignment with the environment

 Ability to improve the alignment

Emerging Issues in

Leadership (cont’d)

 Why Ethical Leadership Is Essential

 Increasing pressure for high ethical standards for

leadership positions

 Increasing pressure to hold leaders accountable for their

actions

 Increasing environmental pressure for stronger corporate

governance models

Emerging Issues in

Leadership (cont’d)

 Virtual Leadership Challenges

 Changes in leadership and mentoring as in-person

contact replaces virtual contact

 Less nonverbal communication

 Increasing importance of e-mail’s role in conveying

appreciation, reinforcement, and constructive feedback

 Face-to-face leadership skills become critical as

opportunities decrease for direct contact

24 25

Foundations of

Organization Structure

Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, PhD.

NEU

The Nature of Organization Structure

 Organization Structure

 The system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within

which an organization does its work

 Purpose of structure is to order and coordinate the actions of

employees to achieve organizational goals

 “Structure follows strategy”

Objectives of Organizational

Structure

 To link individuals in an established network of

relationships

 To group together the tasks required to fufil the

objectives of the organization as a whole and to

allocate them to suitable individuals or groups

 To allocate to individuals or groups the authority

they require to perform their functions

 To coordinate the objectives and activities of

separated units

 To enable the flow of work, information and other

resources via lines of cooperation and communication

Organization Chart

 Describes the structure of an organization

 Shows all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal

communication

 Depicts reporting relationships and work group memberships

 Shows how positions and small work groups are combined into departments which

make up the shape (configuration) of the organization

 Units and relationships among them

 Formal communication and reporting channels

 Structure of authority, responsibility and delegation

 Different types of chart:

 Vertical chart

 Horizontal chart

 Concentric chart

 Matrix chart

 “Metaphors”: network spider web

Organization Chart

 Organization chart: aid managerial thinking and

communication but:

 Static not dynamic as organization

 Formal structrure of authority and communication, not

present informal organiztion

 Describe the structure of org, not the org itself (mission,

values, people, activities)

Identify Seven Elements of an Organization’s Structure

Key Design Questions and Answers for Designing the Proper

Organizational Structure

The Key Question

The Answer Is Provided by

1. To what degree are activities subdivided into

separate jobs?

Work specialization

On what basis will jobs be grouped together?

Departmentalization

To whom do individuals and groups report?

Chain of command

How many individuals can a manager

efficiently and effectively direct?

Span of control

Where does decision-making authority lie?

Centralization and decentralization

To what degree will there be rules and

regulations to direct employees and

managers?

Formalization

Do individuals from different areas need to

regularly interact?

Boundary spanning

0 1

2 3

4 5

Work Specialization/Labour

Division

➢ The way the organization’s work is divided into

different jobs to be done by different people

 The process of dividing work into relatively specialized jobs to

achieve the advantages of specialization

 Division of labor can occur by:

 Dividing work into different personal specialties.

 Dividing work into different activities necessitated

by the natural sequence of the work the

organization does.

Work specialization

Work specialization: the division of labor into separate

activities.

– Repetition of work.

– Training for specialization.

– Increasing efficiency through invention.

– Henry Ford

Work Specialization

Economies and Diseconomies

 Specialization can reach a point of diminishing returns

 Then job enlargement gives greater efficiencies than does

specialization

Departmentalization

 The basis by which jobs are grouped together

 Grouping Activities by:

 Function

 Product

 Geography

 Process

 Customer

Functional Departmentalization

 Jobs are combined according to the functions of the

organization.

 The principal advantage is efficiency.

 By having departments of specialists, management

creates efficient units.

 A major disadvantage is that organizational goals may be

sacrificed in favor of departmental goals.

Customer

Departmentalization

 Customers and clients can be a basis for grouping jobs.

 Examples of customer-oriented departments include:

 Educational institutions

 The loan department in a commercial bank

 Telephone companies

 Department stores

6 7

8 9

10 11

Geographic

Departmentalization

 Groups are established according to geographic area.

 The logic is that all activities in a given region should be

assigned to a manager.

 Advantageous in large organizations because physical

separation of activities makes centralized coordination

difficult.

 Provides a training ground for managerial personnel.

Product Departmentalization

 All jobs associated with producing and selling a product or

product line are placed under the direction of one

manager.

 Product becomes the preferred basis as a firm grows by

increasing the number of products it markets.

 Concentrating authority, responsibility, and accountability

in a specific product department allows top management

to coordinate actions.

Combined Bases for

Departmentalization:

The Matrix Organization

 The matrix organization attempts to maximize the

strengths and minimize the weaknesses of both the

functional and product bases.

 Typically seen as a balanced compromise between

functional and product organization.

 Characterized by the existence of a dual authority

system, which can cause conflicts.

 Facilitates the utilization of highly specialized staff and

equipment.

 The flexibility of this system allows speedy response to

challenges.

Chain of Command/Administrative hierarchy

 Chain of Command

 System of reporting relationships in the

organization from the first level up through the

president or CEO

 The unbroken line of authority that extends

from the top of the organization to the lowest

echelon and clarifies who reports to whom

 Unity of Command

 A subordinate should have only one superior to

whom he or she is directly responsible

 Organizational downsizing results in lower overhead

costs, less bureaucracy, faster decision making,

smoother communications, and increases in

productivity

Chain of command

The chain of command is less relevant today because of

technology and the trend of empowering people.

 Operating employees make decisions once reserved

for management.

 Increased popularity of self-managed and cross-

functional teams.

Many organizations still find that enforcing the chain of

command is productive.

Chain of Command/Administrative

hierarchy

 Responsibility

 An obligation to do something with the expectation of

achieving some act or output

 Authority

 The rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and

to expect the orders to be obeyed

 Power that has been legitimized within a particular social

context

 Originates in the ownership of the organization

 The relationship between responsibility and authority must be one

of parity

 Can be delegated down to others

 Delegation is the transfer to others of authority to make decisions

and use organizational resources

12 13

14 15

16 17

Chain of Command/Administrative

hierarchy

 An Alternative View of Authority

 Acceptance Theory of Authority

 The authority of a manager depends on their subordinates’

acceptance of the manager’s right to give directives and to

expect compliance with them

 By either accepting or rejecting the directives of a supervisor,

workers can limit supervisory authority

Span of Control

The number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and

effectively direct

 Wider spans of management increase organizational

efficiency

 Narrow span drawbacks:

 Expense of additional layers of management

 Increased complexity of vertical communication

 Encouragement of overly tight supervision and

discouragement of employee autonomy

Contrasting Spans of Control

Conditions Affecting Span of

Control

 Optimal unit size (span of control) depends on:

1. The coordination requirements within the unit, including

factors such as the degree of job specialization

2. Degree of specialization

3. Ability to communicate and manage

4. The similarity of the tasks in the unit

5. The type of information available or needed by unit

members

6. Differences in the members’ need for autonomy

7. The extent to which members need direct access to the

supervisor

Centralization and

Decentralization

 Centralization

 The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a

single point in the organization.

 Decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of

the organizational hierarchy

 Decentralization

 The degree to which decision making is spread throughout

the organization.

 Decisions are made throughout the hierarchy.

Delegation of Authority

 Delegation of authority: the process of distributing

authority downward in an organization.

 Managers decide how much authority should be

delegated to each job and to each jobholder.

 The benefits of decentralizing authority include:

 Relatively high delegation of authority encourages the

development of professional managers.

 Managers who have high authority can exercise more

autonomy, and thus satisfy their desires to participate

in problem solving.

18 19

20 21

22 23

Reasons to Centralize

Authority

 Managers must be trained to make the decisions that go

with delegated authority, and training can be quite

expensive.

 Managers accustomed to making decisions may resist

delegating authority to their subordinates, which can

reduce effectiveness.

 Administrative costs are incurred because new control

systems must be developed to provide top management

with information about the effects of subordinates

decisions.

 Decentralization means duplication of functions.

Delegation Decision

Guidelines

 Delegation of authority differs among individuals,

depending on each person’s ability to make decisions.

 If a local manager is incapable of making decisions,

decision making should be centralized, regardless of how

routine the decisions.

 Capable individuals aren’t always motivated individuals.

 Motivation must accompany competency to create

conducive conditions for decentralization.

Formalization

➢ The degree to which rules and procedures shape

the jobs and activities of employees

 The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized.

 High formalization

 Minimum worker discretion in how to get the job done

 Many rules and procedures to follow

 Low formalization

 Job behaviors are nonprogrammed

 Employees have maximum discretion

 Good managers use appropriate judgment in making exceptions to

rules in recognizing that:

 Individuals are unique with meaningful differences

 There are commonalities among employees

Boundary spanning

Boundary spanning occurs when individuals form

relationships with people outside their formally assigned

groups.

 Positive results are especially strong in organizations

that encourage extensive internal communication; in

other words, external boundary spanning is most

effective when it is followed up with internal

boundary spanning.

Simple Structure

 A structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization,

wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and

little formalization

Simple Structure

Simple structure: the manager and the owner are one

and the same.

 Strengths:

Simple, fast, and flexible.

Inexpensive to maintain.

Accountability is clear.

 Weaknesses:

Difficult to maintain in anything other than small

organizations.

Risky—everything depends on one person.

24 25

26 27

28 29

Bureaucracy

 A structure of highly operating routine tasks

achieved through specialization, very

formalized rules and regulations, tasks that

are grouped into functional departments,

centralized authority, narrow spans of

control, and decision making that follows the

chain of command

Matrix Designs

 Combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each.

 A structure that creates dual lines of authority and combines

functional and product departmentalization

 Key Elements

 Gains the advantages of functional and product

departmentalization while avoiding their weaknesses

 Facilitates coordination of complex and interdependent

activities

 Breaks down unity-of-command concept

 Matrix structure is appropriate when:

1. External pressure exists for a dual focus

2. Pressure exists for a high information-processing capacity

3. Pressure exists for shared focus

Matrix Structure (College of Business Administration)

(Dean)

(Director)

Employee

New Design Options: Virtual/Network

Organization

 A small, core organization that

outsources its major business

functions

 Highly centralized with little or no

departmentalization

Provides maximum flexibility while

concentrating on what the

organization does best

Reduced control over key parts of

the business

New Design Options: Virtual/Network Organization

The Virtual Organization

 The essence of the virtual organization is that it

is typically a small, core organization that

outsources major business functions.

Also referred to as a modular or network

organization.

It is highly centralized, with little or no

departmentalization.

The team structure

The team structure: eliminates the chain of command

and replaces departments with empowered teams.

 Removes vertical and horizontal boundaries.

 Breaks down external barriers.

– Flattens the hierarchy and minimizes status and

rank.

• When fully operational, the team structure may break

down geographic barriers.

30 31

32 33

34 35

The circular structure

• In the circular structure: in the center are the

executives, and radiating outward in rings grouped by

function are the managers, then the specialists, then

the workers.

– Has intuitive appeal for creative entrepreneur.

– However, employees may be unclear about whom

they report to and who is running the show.

• We are still likely to see the popularity of the circular

structure spread.

Mechanistic vs. Organic

Structural

Contingency Design Theories

 Contingency design theory: emphasizes the importance of

fitting a design to the demands of a situation, including:

 Technology

 Environmental uncertainty

 Strategy

 Organization size

 The essence of this approach is expressed by this question:

Under what circumstances, and in what situations, is either

the mechanistic or organic design relatively more

effective?

The Relationship Between Strategy

and Structure

 “Structure follows strategy” (Alfred Chandler)

 Management determines what the organization is to do and what its goals

are before designing appropriate structure

 Innovation Strategy

 A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services

 Organic structure best

 Cost-minimization Strategy

 A strategy that emphasizes tight cost controls, avoidance of unnecessary

innovation or marketing expenses, and price cutting

 Mechanistic model best

 Imitation Strategy

 A strategy that seeks to move into new products or new markets only after their

viability has already been proven

 Mixture of the two types of structure

The Relationship Between Strategy

and Structure

An organization’s structure is a means to help

management achieve its objectives.

Most current strategy frameworks focus on three strategy

dimensions:

 Innovation

 Cost Minimization

 Imitation

The Relationship Between

Size and Structure

 Size

 As measured by employee total, organization asset value, sales total, total

of clients served, physical capacity

 Large organizations have a more complex structure

 Large size -employing 2,000 or more people- is associated with greater

specialization of labor, wider spans of control, more hierarchical levels, greater

formalization

 Large organizations are more efficient and take advantage of economies of scale

 The impact of size becomes less important as an organization expands.

36 37

38 39

40 41

The Relationship Between Technology and Structure

Technology: the way an organization transfers its

inputs into outputs.

 Numerous studies have examined the technology-

structure relationship.

 Organizational structures adapt to their technology.

The Relationship Between Technology and Structure

 The mechanistic design is effective for firms that mass

produce products, such as clothing, foods, and

automobiles.

 Tasks are fairly routine, where workers tend machines

designed and paced by engineering standards.

 Actual control of the work flow is separated from

supervision of the workforce.

 In such organizations, the ideas of scientific

management and mechanistic design are applicable.

The Relationship Between Environment and Structure

 Environment

 Institutions or forces outside the organization that potentially affect the

organization’s performance

 All elements that lie outside the organization boundary

 People, other organizations, economic factors, objects, events

 General environment

 All of a broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates

 Political-legal, social, cultural, technological, economic, international

 Task environment

 Specific organizations, groups, individuals who influence the organization

 Three key dimensions: capacity, volatility, and complexity

Analyze the Behavioral Implications of

Different Organizational Designs (2 of 2)

Organizational Designs and Employee Behavior

 Work specialization contributes to higher

employee productivity.

 No evidence supports a relationship between

span of control and employee satisfaction or

performance.

 Fairly strong evidence links centralization and

job satisfaction, meaning that less centralization

is associated with higher satisfaction.

 National culture influences the preference for

structure.

Implications for Managers (1 of

Organizational Structure: Its Determinants and Outcomes

42 43

44 45

Organizational Culture

Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, Assoc. Prof., Dr.

The Nature of Organization

Culture

 Organizational Culture

 A set of values held by individuals in a firm that

help employees understand acceptability of

actions

The Nature of Organization

Culture

 Culture Values

 Are often taken for granted (implicit)

 May not be made explicit (i.e., not written down)

 Are communicated through symbolic means; Are passed

from one generation to the next

 Organizations are able to operate efficiently only when

shared values exist among the employees.

 An individual’s personal values guide behavior on and

off the job.

Core Values

Expressed Values

Visible Culture

Levels of

organizational

Culture

Do Organizations Have

Uniform Cultures?

 Most organizations have a dominant culture and

numerous sets of subcultures.

 The dominant culture expresses the core values a

majority of members share and that give the

organization distinct personality.

 Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations

to reflect common problems, situations, or

experiences that members face.

Common Characteristics of

Organizational Culture

Strong versus Weak Cultures

Culture versus Formalization

 High formalization creates predictability,

orderliness, and consistency.

 Formalization and culture are two different roads

to the same destination.

0 1

2 3

4 5

What Do Cultures Do?

 Culture’s Functions

1. Defines the boundary between one organization and others

2. Conveys a sense of identity for its members

3. Facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger

than self-interest

4. Enhances the stability of the social system

5. Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism for fitting

employees in the organization

What Do Cultures Do?

The trend toward decentralized organizations makes

culture more important than ever, but also makes

establishing a strong culture more difficult.

Individual-organization “fit”— whether the

applicant’s or employee’s attitudes and behavior are

compatible with the culture — strongly influences

who gets a job offer, a favorable performance

review, or a promotion.

What Do Cultures Do?

Culture Creates Climate

 Organizational climate is shared

perceptions about the organization and

work environment.

 Team spirit at the organizational level.

 Climates can interact with one another to

produce behavior.

 Climate also influences the habits people

adopt.

What Do Cultures Do?

The Ethical Dimension of Culture

 Organizational cultures are not neutral in their

ethical orientation, even when they are not openly

pursuing ethical goals.

Over time, the ethical work climate (EWC), or

the shared concept of right and wrong behavior

in that workplace, develops as part of the

organizational climate.

 The ethical climate reflects the true values of the

organization and shapes the ethical decision making

of its members.

What Do Cultures Do?

Studies of ethical climates and workplace outcomes

suggest that some climate categories are likely to be

found in certain organizations.

By measuring the collective levels of moral sensitivity,

judgment, motivation, and character of our

organizations, we may be able to judge the strength of

the influence our ethical climates have on us.

What Do Cultures Do?

• Sustainability: practices that can be maintained over very

long periods of time because the tools or structures that

support the practices are not damaged by the processes.

– Social sustainability practices.

– Sustainable management doesn’t need to be purely

altruistic.

• To create a truly sustainable business, an organization must

develop a long-term culture and put its values into practice.

• Like other cultural practices we’ve discussed, sustainability

needs time and nurturing to grow.

6 7

8 9

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What Do Cultures Do?

Culture and Innovation

 The most innovative companies have

open, unconventional, collaborative,

vision-driven, and accelerating

cultures.

 Startup firms often have innovative

cultures.

They are usually small, agile, and

focused on solving problems in

order to survive and grow.

What Do Cultures Do?

Culture as an Asset

 Culture can significantly contribute to an

organization’s bottom line in many ways.

 There are many more cases of business success

stories because of excellent organizational cultures

than there are of success stories despite bad

cultures, and almost no success stories because of

bad ones.

What Do Cultures Do?

Culture as a Liability

 Institutionalization

 Barrier to change

 Occurs when culture’s values are not aligned with the values necessary for

rapid change

 Barrier to diversity

 Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform,

which may lead to institutionalized bias

 Barrier to acquisitions and mergers

 Incompatible cultures can destroy an otherwise successful merger

Creating and Sustaining

Culture (1 of 6)

How a Culture Begins

 Ultimate source of an organization’s culture is its

founders.

 Founders have the vision of what the organization

should be.

Unconstrained by previous ideologies or customs.

 New organizations are typically small, which

facilitates the founders’ imparting of their vision on

all organizational members.

Creating and Sustaining

Culture (2 of 6)

Culture creation occurs in three ways:

 Founders hire employees who think and feel the

way they do.

 Employees are indoctrinated and socialized into the

founders’ way of thinking.

 Founders’ own behavior encourages employees to

identify with them and internalize their beliefs,

values, and assumptions.

Creating and Sustaining

Culture (3 of 6)

Keeping a Culture Alive

 Selection

Identify and hire individuals with

the knowledge, skills, and abilities

to perform successfully.

Two-way street.

 Top Management

Establish norms of behavior.

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Creating and Sustaining

Culture (4 of 6)

Types of Culture

Formal Control Orientation

Flexible

Internal External

Stable

Clan Culture

Entrepreneurial

Culture

Bureaucratic

Culture

Market Culture

Forms of Attention

How Culture is Transmitted to

Employees

 Stories

 Rituals

 Material Symbols

 Language

Influencing an Organizational Culture

(1 of 5)

 How can management create a more ethical

culture?

 Be a visible role model.

 Communicate ethical expectations.

 Provide ethics training.

 Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical

ones.

 Provide protective mechanisms.

Influencing an Organizational Culture

(2 of 5)

There is a trend today for organizations to attempt

to create a positive organizational culture:

 Emphasizes building on employee strengths.

 Rewards more than it punishes.

 Emphasizes individual vitality growth.

Influencing an Organizational Culture (3 of 5)

What Is Spirituality?

 Workplace spirituality is not about organized

religious practices.

 It is not about God or theology.

 Workplace spirituality recognizes that people

have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished

by meaningful work that takes place in the

context of community.

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Influencing an Organizational Culture (5 of 5)

Characteristics of a Spiritual Organization

 Cultural characteristics present in spiritual

organizations include:

Benevolence

Strong sense of purpose

Trust and respect

Open-mindedness

Identify Characteristics of a Spiritual

Culture (1 of 2)

Achieving a Spiritual Organization

Leaders can demonstrate values, attitudes,

and behaviors that trigger intrinsic motivation

and a sense of calling through work.

Encouraging employees to consider how their

work provides a sense of purpose through

community building also can help achieve a

spiritual workplace.

Managing Organization

Culture

 Taking Advantage of the Existing Culture

 Easier and faster to alter employee behaviors within the

existing culture than it is to change existing history, traditions,

and values

 Managers must be aware and understand the organization’s

values

 Managers can communicate their understanding to lower-level

individuals

Managing Organization

Culture

 Teaching Organization Culture

 Organizational socialization

 Is the process through which employees learn about the

firm’s culture and pass their knowledge and understanding

on to others

 Organizational mechanisms

 Are examples of organization culture that employees see in

more experienced employees’ behaviors

 Corporate pamphlets and formal training sessions

Managing Organization

Culture

 Changing the Organization Culture

 Managing symbols

 Substituting stories and myths that support the new cultural values for those that

support old ones

 Culture can be difficult to change when upper management inadvertently

reverts to old behaviors

 The Stability of Change

 New values and beliefs must be seen as stable and influential as old ones

 Changing value systems requires enormous effort because value systems

tend to be self-reinforcing

Managing Organization Culture

 Culture can be changed, but

 Need time

 Support from top managers

 Other resources

 How to make culture change

 Change people

 Change corporate vision and mission

 Change organizational policies and

system: reward system, recruitment

and selection policies, technology…

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Implications for Managers (1 of 3)

How Organizational Cultures Have an Impact on Employee

Performance and Satisfaction

Motivation: From Concepts to

Applications

INSTRUCTOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR., PHAM THI BICH NGOC

NEU

Learning Objectives

 Describe how the job characteristics model motivates

by changing the work environment.

 Compare the main ways jobs can be redesigned.

 Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can

motivate employees.

 Describe how employee involvement measures can

motivate employees.

 Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay

programs can increase employee motivation.

 Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators.

 Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards.

Job Characteristics Model

(JCM)

 Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be

described through five core job dimensions:

 Skill variety – Requirements for different tasks in

the job.

 Task identity – Completion of a whole piece of

work.

 Task significance – The job’s impact on others.

 Autonomy – Level of discretion in decision

making.

 Feedback – Amount of direct and clear

information on performance.

 The way elements in a job are organized (job design)

impacts motivation, satisfaction, and performance.

The Job Characteristics Model

Employee growth-need strength moderates the relationships.

Motivating Potential Score (MPS)

 The core dimensions of the job characteristics model (JCM)

can be combined into a single predictive index called the

motivating potential score (MPS).

 People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are

generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.

 Job dimensions operate through the psychological states

in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather

than influencing them directly.

 Evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a

set of job characteristics does generate higher and more

satisfying job performance.

 While the JCM framework is supported by research, the MPS

model isn’t practical and doesn’t work well.

How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?

 Job Rotation

 The periodic shifting of a worker from

one task to another

 Systematically moving workers from one

job to another in an attempt to minimize

monotony and boredom

 Job Enlargement

 The horizontal expansion of jobs

 Giving workers more tasks to perform

 Job Enrichment

 The vertical expansion of jobs

 Giving workers a greater variety of tasks

to perform and more control over how to

perform them

How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?

 Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation.

 Job Rotation

 Referred to as cross-training.

 Periodic shifting from one task to another.

 Strengths: reduces boredom, increases

motivation, and helps employees better

understand their work contributions.

 Weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra

time for supervisors addressing questions and

training time, and reduced efficiencies.

Job enrichments

 Allow employees to plan their own

work schedules.

 Allow employees to decide how

the work should be performed.

 Allow employees to check their

own work.

 Allow employees to learn new skills.

Guidelines for Enriching a

Job

Flexible Work Arrangements

 Variable Work Schedules

 Compressed work schedule

 Employees work a full forty-hour week in fewer than

the traditional five days

 Flexible work schedules (flextime)

 Employees gain more personal control over the hours they work

each day

 Job Sharing

 Part-time employees share one full-time job

 Telecommuting

 Employees spend part of their time working off-site

Alternative Work

Arrangements

Job Sharing

 Two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job.

Declining in use.

Can be difficult to find compatible pairs of

employees who can successfully coordinate

the intricacies of one job.

Increases flexibility and can increase

motivation and satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-

week job is just not practical.

Alternative Work Arrangements

 Telecommuting

 Employees do their work at home at least two days a week

on a computer that is linked to their office.

 The Virtual Office

 Employees work out of their home on a relatively permanent

basis.

 Some well-known organizations actively discourage

telecommuting, but for most organizations it remains

popular.

 Typical Telecommuting Jobs

 Professional and other knowledge-related tasks

 Routine information-handling tasks

 Mobile activities

Employee Involvement

Employee Involvement: a participative process

that uses employees’ input to increase their

commitment to the organization’s success.

Examples of Employee Involvement Programs

 Participative management

 Representative participation

Employee Involvement

Participative management

 Joint decision making.

 Trust and confidence in leaders is essential.

 Studies of the participation-performance have

yielded mixed results.

Employee Involvement

Representative participation

 Workers are represented by a small group of

employees who actually participate in decision

making.

– Almost every country in Western Europe requires

representative participation.

– The two most common forms:

▪ Works councils

▪ Board representatives

Employee Involvement

and Motivation

 Early Perspectives on Employee Involvement

 In the beginning:

 Employee satisfaction is a result of their participation

in decision-making

 Recently:

 Employees are valued human resources who can

contribute to organizational effectiveness

 Their participation is valued

Employee Involvement

and Motivation

 Areas of Employee Involvement

 Personal job-related decisions

 Administrative matters (e.g., work schedules)

 Product quality decisions

 Techniques and Issues in Employee Involvement

 Empowerment through work teams (quality circles)

 Decentralization of decision-making and increased

delegation

Empowerment

 Empowering others by:

 Articulating a clear vision and

goals

 Providing support

 Providing necessary resources

 Providing good information

Requirements for Effective

Empowerment

 An organization must be:

 Sincere in its efforts to spread power and autonomy to

lower levels of the organization

 Committed to maintaining participation and

empowerment

 Systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers

 Prepared to increase its commitment to training

Delegation

 Delegation is the process of assigning tasks and granting

sufficient authority for their accomplishment.

 Delegation is a process where a manager:

 Determines the results expected

 Allocates duties to subordinates

 Grants them authority to enable those duties to be carried

out

 Holds them responsible for the completion of the work

and achievement results.

The ultimate accountability for the task remains with the

manager.

Problems of Delegation

 Managers are reluctant to delegate

because of:

 Low confidence and trust

 The burden of accountability for the

mistakes of subordinates

 Poor control and communication system

 Lack of understanding of what delegation

involves

 Lack of training and development of

managers in delegation skills

 Fear of losing power

Variable-Pay Programs

What to Pay:

 Complex process that entails balancing internal

equity and external equity.

 Some organizations prefer to pay leaders by

paying above market.

 Paying more may net better-qualified and more

highly motivated employees who may stay with

the firm longer.

Variable-Pay Programs

How to Pay:

 Variable pay programs:

Piece-rate plans

Merit-based pay

Bonuses

Profit sharing

Employee stock ownership plans

 Earnings therefore fluctuate up and down.

Variable-Pay Programs

Piece-Rate Pay

 A pure piece-rate plan provides no base salary and

pays the employee only for what he or she produces.

 Limitation: not a feasible approach for many jobs.

 The main concern for both individual and team

piece-rate workers is financial risk.

Variable-Pay Programs

Merit-Based Pay

 Allows employers to differentiate pay based on

performance.

 Creates perceptions of relationships between

performance and rewards.

 Limitations:

Based on annual performance appraisals.

Merit pool fluctuates.

Union resistance.

Variable-Pay Programs

Bonuses

 An annual bonus is a significant component of

total compensation for many jobs.

 Increasingly include lower-ranking employees.

Many companies now routinely reward

production employees with bonuses when

profits improve.

 Downside: employees’ pay is more vulnerable to

cuts.

Variable-Pay Programs

Profit-Sharing Plans

 Organization-wide programs that distribute

compensation based on some established formula

centered around a company’s profitability.

 Appear to have positive effects on employee

attitudes at the organizational level.

 Employees have a feeling of psychological

ownership.

Variable-Pay Programs

Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP)

 A company-established benefit plan in which

employees acquire stock, often at below-market

prices, as part of their benefits.

 Increases employee satisfaction and innovation.

Employees need to psychologically

experience ownership.

 Can reduce unethical behavior.

Variable-Pay Programs

Evaluation of Variable Pay

 Do variable-pay programs increase motivation

and productivity?

▪ Generally, yes, but that doesn’t mean

everyone is equally motivated by them.

Show How Flexible Benefits

Turn Benefits Into Motivators

Developing a Benefits Package

 Flexible benefits individualize rewards.

– Allow each employee to choose the

compensation package that best satisfies his or

her current needs and situation.

▪ Today, almost all major corporations in the

United States offer flexible benefits.

▪ However, it may be surprising that their usage

is not yet global.

Identify the Motivational

Benefits of Intrinsic Rewards

Employee Recognition Programs

 Organizations are increasingly recognizing that

important work rewards can be both intrinsic and

extrinsic.

 Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee

recognition programs and extrinsic in the form of

compensation systems.

Implications for Managers (1 of 3)

Recognize individual differences.

 Spend the time necessary to understand what’s

important to each employee.

 Design jobs to align with individual needs and

maximize their motivation potential.

Use goals and feedback.

 You should give employees firm, specific goals,

and they should get feedback on how well

they are faring in pursuit of those goals.

Implications for Managers (2 of 3)

Allow employees to participate in decisions that

affect them.

 Employees can contribute to setting work goals,

choosing their own benefits packages, and

solving productivity and quality problems.

Link rewards to performance.

 Rewards should be contingent on performance,

and employees must perceive the link between

the two.

Implications for Managers (3 of 3)

Check the system for equity.

 Employees should perceive that experience,

skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs

explain differences in performance and hence in

pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards.

Special Issues in

Motivation

 Motivating Professionals

 Provide challenging projects.

 Allow them the autonomy to be productive.

 Reward with educational opportunities.

 Reward with recognition.

 Express interest in what they are doing.

 Create alternative career paths.

Special Issues in

Motivation (cont’d)

 Motivating the Diversified Workforce

 Provide flexible work, leave, and pay schedules.

 Provide child and elder care benefits.

 Structure working relationships to account for cultural

differences and similarities.

 Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers

 Recruit widely.

 Increase pay and benefits.

 Make jobs more appealing.

Special Issues in

Motivation (cont’d)

 Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks

 Recruit and select employees that fit the job.

 Create a pleasant work environment.

 Motivating Contingent Workers

 Provide opportunity for permanent status.

 Provide opportunities for training.

 Provide equitable pay.

Motivation Concepts

Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Bich Ngoc

NEU

Learning Objectives

 Describe the three key elements of motivation.

 Compare the early theories of motivation.

 Contrast the elements of self-determination theory

and goal-setting theory.

 Demonstrate the differences among self-efficacy

theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and

expectancy theory.

 Identify the implications of employee job

engagement for managers.

 Describe how the contemporary theories of

motivation complement one another.

Defining Motivation

 Motivation is the processes that account for an

individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of

effort toward attaining a goal.

 The level of motivation varies both between

individuals and within individuals at different

times.

Three key elements:

 Intensity

 Direction

 Persistence

Motivation framework

Need-based Theories of

Motivation

These early theories may not be valid, but they do

form the basis for contemporary theories and are

still used by practicing managers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and

Growth)

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs

There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is

substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions

 Individuals

cannot move to

the next higher

level until all

needs at the

current (lower)

level are satisfied

 Must move in

hierarchical

order

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

Lower Order

External

Higher Order

Internal

 Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition,

particularly among practicing managers.

 It is intuitively logical and easy to understand

and some research has validated it.

 However, most research does, especially when

the theory is applied to diverse cultures.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor

Theory

Hygiene

Factors

Motivators

Achievement

Responsibility

Growth

Work

Conditions

Salary

Company

Policies

Extrinsic and

Related to

Dissatisfaction

Intrinsic and

Related to

Satisfaction

Compare the Early Theories of

Motivation

Contrasting View of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s Two-Factor

Theory

 Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two separate

dimensions:

 Motivation factors which affect satisfaction

 Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction

 Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment once

hygiene factors are addressed

Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory

➢ Limited because it relies on self-reports.

➢ Reliability of methodology is questioned.

➢ No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.

Three groups of core needs:

 Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)

 Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)

 Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)

Removed the hierarchical assumption

 Can be motivated by all three at once

McClelland’s Three Needs

Theory

 Need for Achievement (nAch)

 The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, to strive to succeed

 Need for Power (nPow)

 The need to make others behave in a way that they

would not have behaved otherwise

 Need for Affiliation (nAff)

 The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships

 People have varying levels of each of the three

needs.

 Hard to measure

Performance Predictions

for High nAch

 People with a high need for achievement are

likely to:

 Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance

of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations

 Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of

personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk

 Not necessarily make good managers – too

personal a focus. Most good general managers do

NOT have a high nAch

 Need high level of nPow and low nAff for

managerial success

 Good research support, but it is not a very

practical theory

Parallels among the Need theories of

Motivation

Growth Needs

Relatedness

Needs

Existence Needs

Self-actualization

Needs

Self-Esteem

Respect of others

Social

Needs

Security

Physiological Needs

Motivation Factors

Achievement

Work itself

Responsibility

Advancement

Recognition

Hygience Factors

Supervision

Interpersonal relationship

Job security

Company Policies

Pay

Working Conditions

Need for

Achievement

Need for power

Need for

Affiliation

Process-based and Contemporary Theories

of Motivation

 Self-determination theory

 Goal-Setting Theory

 Self-Efficacy Theory

 Equity Theory

 Reinforcement Theory

 Expectancy Theory

Self-Determination Theory

 People prefer to feel they have control over

their actions.

 People paid for work feel less like they want

to do it and more like they have to it.

 Proposes that in addition to being driven by a

need for autonomy, people seek ways to

achieve competence and positive

connections to others.

Self-Determination Theory

 When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance,

employees feel they are doing a good job.

 Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards

can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific

circumstances.

Self-Determination Theory

 What does self-determination theory suggest for providing

rewards?

 Self-concordance: considers how strongly people’s reasons for

pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core

values.

Goal-Setting Theory

 Goal-Setting Theory

 Goals tell an employee what needs to be

done and how much effort is needed.

 Evidence suggests:

 Specific goals increase performance.

 Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher

performance than do easy goals.

 Feedback leads to higher performance than

does non-feedback.

Goal-Setting Theory

 Three other factors influencing the goals-performance

relationship:

 Goal commitment

 Task characteristics

 National culture

Goal-Setting Theory

 People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and

behaviors.

 Those with a promotion focus strive for

advancement and accomplishment and

approach conditions that move them closer

toward desired goals.

 Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties

and obligations and avoid conditions that pull

them away from desired goals.

Goal Setting and

Motivation

 Basic Premise:

 That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated

feedback, lead to higher performance

 Purposes of Setting Goals in Organizations

 To provide a useful framework for managing

motivation to enhance employee performance

 To serve management as a control device for

monitoring of how well the organization is

performing

 Self-Efficacy

 The extent to which we believe we can accomplish

our goals even if we failed to do so in the past

Expanded Goal Setting Theory

 The Goal-Setting Process

 Goal-directed effort is a function of goal attributes:

1. Goal difficulty: The extent to which a goal is challenging, requires

effort, and is attainable

 Difficult Goals:

 Focus and direct attention

 Energize the person to work harder

 Difficulty increases persistence

 Force people to be more effective and efficient

2. Goal specificity: The clarity and precision of a goal

3. Goal acceptance: the extent to which a person accepts a goal as

his/her own

4. Goal commitment: the extent to which a person is interested in

reaching a goal

Source: Reprinted from ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS, Autumn

1979, Gary P. Latham et al., "The Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation",

Broader Perspectives on

Goal Setting

 Management by Objectives (MBO)

 A collaborative goal-setting process through which

organizational goals cascade down throughout the

organization

 Requires customizing to each organization

 Can be effective for managing reward systems where the

manager has individual interactions with each employee

Self-Efficacy Theory

 An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of

performing a task.

 Higher efficacy is related to:

 Greater confidence

 Greater persistence in the face of difficulties

 Better response to negative feedback (work harder)

 Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

Increasing Self-Efficacy

 Enactive mastery

 Most important source of efficacy

 Gaining relevant experience with task or job

 “Practice makes perfect”

 Vicarious modeling

 Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task

 Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him-

or herself

 Verbal persuasion

 Motivation through verbal conviction

 Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies

 Arousal

 Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task

 Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task

Self-Efficacy Theory

Joint Effects of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance

Source: Based on E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful

Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey,” American

Psychologist (September 2002): 705–17.

Self-Efficacy Theory

 Implications of self-efficacy theory:

 The best way for a manager to use verbal

persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect.

A form of self-fulfilling prophecy – believing in

something can make it true.

 Training programs often make use of enactive

mastery by having people practice and build

their skills.

Reinforcement Theory

 Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its

consequences.

 Reinforcement conditions behavior.

 Behavior is environmentally caused.

 Goal setting is a cognitive approach: an individual’s

purposes direct his or her action.

 Operant conditioning theory: people learn to behave to get

something they want or to avoid something they don’t

want.

 B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism.

Reinforcement Theory

 focuses on a behavioral approach rather than a

cognitive one.

 Behavior is environmentally caused

 Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important

 Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored

 Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers

 Behavior is a function of its consequences

 Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior

 Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of

behavior

 Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not

likely to be the sole cause

Equity Theory

 When employees perceive an inequity, they can be

predicted to make one of six choices:

 Change their inputs.

 Change their outcomes.

 Distort perceptions of self.

 Distort perceptions of others.

 Choose a different referent.

 Leave the field.

Equity Theory

Model of Organizational Justice

Expectancy Theory

 Expectancy theory: a tendency to act in a certain way

depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by

a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome

to the individual.

 Three relationships:

 Effort-performance relationship

 Performance-reward relationship

 Rewards-personal goals relationship

Expectancy Theory

 Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t

motivated and do only the minimum.

 Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if

their motivation is to be maximized:

 If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in

my performance appraisal?

 If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead

to organizational rewards?

 If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to

me?

Expectancy Relationships

(Linkages)

 Effort–performance

 The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of

effort will lead to performance results

 Performance–reward

 The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the

attainment of a desired outcome

 Attractiveness

 The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward

that can be achieved on the job.

Expectancy Theory

Factor influence Effort-Performance:

 Level of expectancy: belief/perception that one’s effort

will result attainment of desired performance goals.

 Factors affecting expectancy perception:

 self-efficacy

 Goal difficulty

Expectancy Theory

Factor influence Performance-Reward:

 Instrumentality: Motivation depend on the perceived

effective relationship between given input and the

expected outcome.

 Factor influence the individual’s instrumentality

perception:

 Trust

 Control:

 Policies

Expectancy Theory

Factor influence Reward-Personal Goal:

 Valence: value placed on outcomes (intrinsic and

extrinsic). It is a function of individual’s needs, goals, values

and source of motivation

 Factors influencing valence for outcome:

 Values

 Needs

 Goals

 Preferences

Implications for managers of Expectancy

Theory

Managers should give attention to a

number of factors:

 Use rewards appropriate in terms of individual

performance

 Attempt to establish clear relationships between effort-

performance and rewards

 Establish clear procedures for the evaluation of individual

levels of performance

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Bich Ngoc
Faculty of Human Resources Economics and Management NEU 0 Course Objectives
The course is designed to give students the basic
knowledge of human behavior in organizations and how
to apply this knowledge to increase the organization
effectiveness. After taking this class, the students should all be able to:
➢ Demonstrate an understanding of basic theory and research
related to contemporary issues in organizational behavior.
➢ Demonstrate an understanding of individual behavior and the
links between individual behavior and its social and organizational context.
➢ Demonstrate ability to apply OB theories to discuss work issues
and to develop constructive proposals for dealing with that issues.
➢ Exhibit analytical, research, teamworking and presentation skills 1-1 1 COURSE READING MATERIAL Text book:
➢ S. P. Robbins and T. A. Judge (2017). Organizational Behavior
(Global Edition). Prentice Hall, USA Reference book
➢ Moorheard, G. and Griffin, R. W., 2012, Managing Organizational
behavior, International Edition, US, South-Western Cengage Learning
➢ John R Schermerhorn, Jr., Richard N. Osborn, James G. Hunt, Mary
Uhl-Bien (2012) Organizational Behavior: International Student
Version (12th Edition). Wiley John & Sons.
➢ Laurie J. Mullins (2016). Management Organizational Behavior (11th
Edition). Prentice Hall.
➢ McShane, S. L, Glinow, M. A. V. (2010), Organizational Behavior
(5th Edition) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA 1-2 2
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 Course schedule Session Topics Session 1 Introduction and Chapter 1
Chapter 2: Diversity in Organizations Session 2
Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
Chapter 5: Personality & Values Session 3
Chapter 6: Perception and individual decision making Chapter 7: Motivation Concepts Session 4,5
Chapter 8: Motivation: From Concepts to Applications
Chapter 9: Foundations of Group Behavior Session 6
Chapter 10: Understanding Work Teams Session 7 Chapter 11: Communication Session 8 Chapter 12: Leadership Session 9
Chapter 15: Foundations of Organization structure Session 10
Chapter 16: Organizational Culture
Session 11,12,13 Group presentation 1-3 3 ASSESSMENT
➢10% Participation in class
➢20% Midterm examination (Individual test) ➢20% Group assignments
➢50% Final examination 1-4 4 Unit 1:
Introduction to Organizational Behavior 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 Learning Objectives
➢ After studying this unit, you should be able to:
– Identify the functions that comprise the management process
and relate them to organizational behavior.
– Relate organizational behavior to basic managerial roles and skills.
– Demonstrate the importance of interpersonal skills in the workplace
– Define organizational behavior (OB).
– Importance and functions of OB
– Identify the major behavioral science disciplines that contribute to OB.
– Identify the challenges and opportunities managers have in applying OB concepts. 1-6 6 What is an organization? Environment Resources Mechanism Goals 1-7 7 Types of employees Senior managers Line managers Supervisors Operatives 1-8 8
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Organization as an open system 1-9 9 What Managers Do
➢ They get things done through other people.
➢ Management Activities: – Make decisions – Allocate resources
– Direct activities of others to attain goals 1-10 10 The Nature of Managerial Work Management To Coordinate To Attain Plans the Behavior of Effectiveness of Organizes Individuals Individuals Leads Groups Groups Controls Organizations Organizations Feedback
Management’s Contribution to Effectiveness 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 Management Functions Control Plan Lead Organize
Based on your own experiences or observations, provide examples of each function? 1-12 12 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
➢ Discovered ten managerial roles
➢ Separated into three groups: – Interpersonal – Informational – Decisional 1-13 13
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Interpersonal 1-14 14
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Informational
Source: Adapted from The Nature of Managerial Work by H. Mintzberg. Copyright ©
1973 by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education. 1-15 15
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles: Decisional
Source: Adapted from The Nature of Managerial Work by H. Mintzberg. Copyright ©
1973 by H. Mintzberg. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education. 1-16 16
Katz’s Essential Management Skills ➢ Technical Skills
– The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise ➢ Human Skills
– The ability to work with, understand,
and motivate other people, both individually and in groups ➢ Conceptual Skills
– The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations 1-17 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 6
Managerial Skills at Different Organizational Levels Top C o D manager n i c a e g s T p s In n k e tu k te o i c i s l l l h a ls r ti Middle s n l p c i s e s manager c k r a i s k l l o i ls n ll a s l First-line manager 1–18 18
The Importance of Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills are important because…
➢‘Good places to work’ have better financial performance.
➢Better interpersonal skills result in lower turnover of
quality employees and higher quality applications for recruitment.
➢There is a strong association between the quality of
workplace relationships and job satisfaction, stress, and turnover.
➢It fosters social responsibility awareness. 19 Organizational Behavior
“OB is the study of human behavior
in organizational settings, the
interface between human behavior and the organization, and the
organization itself” (Griffin et al., Environment 2012) Human behavior in organizational settings
Organizational behavior (OB) is a The Individual-
field of study that investigates the Organization Interface
impact that individuals, groups, and
structure have on behavior within The Organization
organizations for the purpose of
applying such knowledge toward
improving an organization’s Environment effectiveness. 1-20 20
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 7 Intuition and Systematic Study • Gut feelings • Individual observation Intuition • Commonsense • Looks at relationships
Systematic • Scientific evidence Study • Predicts behaviors
The two are complementary means of predicting behavior. 1-21 21
Complementing Intuition with Systematic Study
➢ Systematic Study of Behavior
– Behavior generally is predictable if we know how the person
perceived the situation and what is important to him or her.
➢ Evidence-Based Management (EBM)
– Complements systematic study.
– Argues for managers to make decisions based on evidence. ➢ Intuition
– Systematic study and EBM add to intuition, or those “gut
feelings” about “why I do what I do” and “what makes others tick.”
– If we make all decisions with intuition or gut instinct, we’re
likely working with incomplete information. 22 Contributing Disciplines Many behavioral sciences have contributed to the development of Organizational Psychology Behavior Social Psychology Sociology Anthropology 1-23 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 8
Challenges and Opportunities for OB ➢ Globalization
➢ Responding to economic pressure
➢ Diversity workforces
➢ Improving customer service
➢ Using social media at work
➢Improving ethical behavior
➢Enhancing employee well-being at work ➢ Employment options
➢ Innovation and change 1-24 24
Three Levels of Analysis OB Model 25
Three Levels of Analysis OB Model ➢ Inputs
– Variables like personality, group structure, and organizational culture that lead to processes. – Group structure, roles, and team responsibilities are typically assigned immediately before or after a group is formed. – Organizational structure and culture change over time. 26
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 9
Three Levels of Analysis OB Model ➢ Processes
– If inputs are like the nouns in organizational behavior, processes are like verbs. – Defined as actions that individuals, groups, and organizations engage in as a result of inputs, and that lead to certain outcomes. 27
Three Levels of Analysis OB Model ➢ Outcomes
– Key variables that you want to explain or predict, and that are affected by some other variables. 28 Outcome Variables ➢Attitudes and stress
– Employee attitudes are the evaluations employees make,
ranging from positive to negative, about objects, people, or events.
– Stress is an unpleasant psychological process that occurs in
response to environmental pressures. 29
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 10 Outcome Variables ➢Task performance
– The combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing
your core job tasks is a reflection of your level of task
performance (Routine task performance, Adaptive task
performance, creative task performance) 30 Outcome Variables
- Counterproductive behavior: employee behaviors that intentionally
hinder organizational goal accomplishment 31 Outcome Variables
➢Organizational citizenship behavior
– The discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s
formal job requirements, and that contributes to the
psychological and social environment of the workplace, is
called organizational citizenship behavior. 32
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 11 Outcome Variables ➢Withdrawal behavior
– Withdrawal behavior is the set of actions that employees
take to separate themselves from the organization. 33 Outcome Variables ➢Group cohesion
– Group cohesion is the extent to which members of a
group support and validate one another at work. ➢Group functioning
– Group functioning refers to the quantity and quality of a group’s work output. 34 Outcome Variables ➢Productivity
– An organization is productive if it achieves its goals by
transforming inputs into outputs at the lowest cost. This
requires both effectiveness and efficiency. ➢Survival
– The final outcome is organizational survival, which is
simply evidence that the organization is able to exist and grow over the long term. 35
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 12 Implications for Managers
➢Resist the inclination to rely on generalizations;
some provide valid insights into human
behavior, but many are erroneous.
➢Use metrics and situational variables rather
than “hunches” to explain cause-and-effect relationships.
➢Work on your interpersonal skills to increase
your leadership potential. 36 Implications for Managers
➢Improve your technical skills and conceptual skills
through training and staying current with OB
trends like “big data”.
➢OB can improve your employees’ work quality and
productivity by showing you how to empower your
employees, design and implement change
programs, improve customer service, and help
your employees balance work-life conflicts. 37
Summary and Managerial Implications
➢ Managers need to develop their interpersonal skills to be effective.
➢ OB focuses on how to improve factors that make
organizations more effective.
➢ The best predictions of behavior are made from a
combination of systematic study and intuition.
➢ Situational variables moderate cause-and-effect
relationships – which is why OB theories are contingent.
➢ There are many OB challenges and opportunities for managers today.
➢ The textbook is based on the contingent OB model. 1-38 38
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 13 Learning Objectives Attitudes and Job Satisfaction
 Contrast the three components of an attitude.
 Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr., Pham Thi Bich Ngoc
 Compare the major job attitudes.  Define job satisfaction.
 Summarize the main causes of job satisfaction.
 Identify three outcomes of job satisfaction.
 Identify four employee responses to dissatisfaction. 0 1
Contrast the Three Components of an
Contrast the Three Components of an Attitude (1 of 2) Attitude (2 of 2)
 Attitudes are evaluative statements—either favorable or The Components of an Attitude
unfavorable—about objects, people, or events.
– They reflect how we feel about something. 2 3
Summarize the Relationship
Compare the Major Job Attitudes (1 of
Between Attitudes and Behavior 5) (1 of 2)  Job Satisfaction
 The attitudes that people hold determine what they do.
 A positive feeling about the job resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristics.
 Festinger: cases of attitude fol owing behavior
il ustrate the effects of cognitive dissonance.  Job Involvement
 Degree of psychological identification with the
 Cognitive dissonance is any incompatibility an
job where perceived performance is important
individual might perceive between two or more to self-worth.
attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
 Psychological Empowerment
Belief in the degree of influence over one’s
job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. 4 5 1
Compare the Major Job Attitudes (2 of
Compare the Major Job Attitudes (3 of 5) 5) Organizational Commitment
Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
 Identifying with a particular organization and
 Degree to which employees believe the
its goals and wishing to maintain membership
organization values their contribution and cares in the organization. about their wel -being.
 Employees who are committed wil be less
 Higher when rewards are fair, employees are
likely to engage in work withdrawal even if
involved in decision making, and supervisors are
they are dissatisfied, because they have a seen as supportive.
sense of organizational loyalty.
 POS is important in countries where power distance is lower. 6 7
Compare the Major Job Attitudes (4 of
Compare the Major Job Attitudes (5 5) of 5)  Employee Engagement
Are these job attitudes real y al that distinct?
 The degree of involvement with, satisfaction
 No, these attitudes are highly related; and
with, and enthusiasm for the job.
while there is some distinction, there is also a
lot of overlap that may cause confusion.
 Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company. 8 9 Define Job Satisfaction Summarize the Main Causes of (2 of 5) Job Satisfaction  Job Satisfaction ( 1 of W 3) hat causes job satisfaction?
 A positive feeling about a job resulting from an  Job conditions
evaluation of its characteristics.
The intrinsic nature of the work itself, social
 Two approaches for measuring job satisfaction are popular
interactions, and supervision are important
predictors of job satisfaction.  The single global rating.  Personality
 The summation of job facets.
People who have positive core self-
evaluations, who believe in their inner worth
and basic competence, are more satisfied
with their jobs than those with negative core self-evaluations. 10 11 2
Summarize the Main Causes of Job Outcomes of Job Satisfaction Satisfaction (3 of 3) • Job Performance
 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
 Corporate social responsibility (CSR): self-
– Happy workers are more likely to be productive workers.
regulated actions to benefit society or the
environment beyond what is required by law. • OCB
– People who are more satisfied with their jobs are
Includes environmental sustainability more likely to engage in OCB.
initiatives, nonprofit work, and charitable giving.
• Customer Satisfaction
Increasingly affects employee job
– Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. satisfaction. • Life Satisfaction
– Research shows that job satisfaction is positively
correlated with life satisfaction. 12 13 Four Employee Responses Four Employee Responses to Dissatisfaction to Dissatisfaction (2 of 2)
 Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)
 Counterproductive work behavior:
 Absenteeism: the more satisfied you are, the
less likely you are to miss work.  Turnover: 14 15 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance
•Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or
between behavior and attitudes.
•Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or “dissonance”
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on
• Importance of elements creating dissonance
• Degree of individual influence over elements
• Rewards involved in dissonance 16 3 Learning Objectives Personalities and
 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the factors that shape it. Values
 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) personality framework and the Big Five model.
 Discuss how the concepts of core self-evaluation (CSE), self-
monitoring, and proactive personality contribute to the understanding of personality.
Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, PhD
 Describe how the situation affects whether personality predicts behavior.
Contrast terminal and instrumental values.
 Describe the differences between person-job fit and person- organization fit.
 Compare Hofstede’s five value dimensions and the GLOBE framework.
Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the
Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the
Factors that Shape It (1 of 4)
Factors that Shape It (2 of 4)  Defining Personality  Measuring Personality
 Personality is a dynamic concept
 Managers need to know how to measure describing the growth and personality.
development of a person’s whole psychological system.
Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions
and help managers forecast who is best for a
 The sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts to and interacts job. with others.
 The most common means of measuring personality
 Personality consists of stable
is through self-report surveys.
characteristics which explain why
a person behaves in a particular way
Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the
Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured, and the
Factors that Shape It (3 of 4)
Factors that Shape It (4 of 4)  Personality Determinants
 Early research tried to identify and label enduring personality
 Is personality the result of heredity or characteristics. environment?
 Shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious,
 Heredity refers to those factors that were loyal, and timid. determined at conception.
These are personality traits.
The heredity approach argues that the
ultimate explanation of an individual’s
personality is the molecular structure of the
genes, located in the chromosomes. 1 The Myers-Briggs Type
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Indicator Extraverted Characteristics
Introverted Characteristics
➢ Think/reflect first, then Act
 Act first, think/reflect later
➢ Regularly require an amount
 Feel deprived when cutoff from
of "private time" to recharge
interaction with the outside world batteries Personality Types
 Usually open to and motivated
➢ Motivated internally, mind is
• Extraverted or Introverted (E or I)
by outside world of people and
sometimes so active it is things
• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
"closed" to outside world
• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
 Enjoy wide variety and change in ➢ Prefer one-to-one
• Judging or Perceiving (J or P) people relationships communication and relationships
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Sensing Characteristics
Intuitive Characteristics Thinking Characteristics Feeling Characteristics 
Mentally live in the Now, attending to
➢ Mentally live in the Future, attending to present opportunities
 Instinctively search for facts and
➢ Instinctively employ personal future possibilities logic in a decision situation
feelings and impact on people in 
Using common sense and creating decision situations
practical solutions is automatic-
➢ Using imagination and creating/inventing instinctual
new possibilities is automatic-instinctual
 Naturally notices tasks and work ➢ to be accomplished.
Naturally sensitive to people needs
➢ Memory recall emphasizes patterns, and reactions 
Memory recall is rich in detail of facts
contexts, and connections and past events  Easily able to provide an
➢ Naturally seek consensus and ➢
objective and critical analysis
Best improvise from theoretical 
Best improvise from past experience popular opinions understanding 
Like clear and concrete information;
 Accept conflict as a natural,
➢ Unsettled by conflict; have almost a
dislike guessing when facts are
➢ Comfortable with ambiguous, fuzzy data
normal part of relationships with
toxic reaction to disharmony. "fuzzy"
and with guessing its meaning people.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator The Big Five Model Judging Characteristics
Perceiving Characteristics
➢ Comfortable moving into action
 Plan many of the details in
without a plan; plan on-the-go. advance before moving into action.
➢ Like to multitask, have variety, mix work and play.
 Focus on task-related action; complete meaningful segments before moving on.
➢ Naturally tolerant of time
pressure; work best close to the
 Work best and avoid stress when deadlines. keep ahead of deadlines.
➢ Instinctively avoid commitments
 Naturally use targets, dates and
which interfere with flexibility,
standard routines to manage life. freedom and variety 2
Short Form for the IPIP-NEO
Traits That Matter Most to Business Success at Buyout Companies
 http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/ipipneo120.htm Most Important Less Important Persistence Strong oral communication Attention to detail Teamwork Efficiency Flexibility/adaptability Analytical skills Enthusiasm Setting high standards Listening skills
Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria
Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
 The Dark Triad Machiavellianism: the degree to which an individual is
pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.
Narcissism: the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance,
require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
Psychopathy: the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or
remorse when their actions cause harm.
Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
 An emerging framework to study dark side traits:
 Third, schizotypal individuals are eccentric and
 First, antisocial people are indifferent and callous disorganized. toward others.
 Fourth, obsessive compulsive people are
 Second, borderline people have low self-esteem
perfectionists and can be stubborn, yet they and high uncertainty.
attend to details, carry a strong work ethic, and
may be motivated by achievement.
 Fifth, avoidant individuals feel inadequate and hate criticism. 3
Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
 Core Self-Evaluation: bottom line conclusions individuals have about
their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.
 Self-Monitoring: measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her  Locus of control
behavior to external, situational factors.  Machiavellianism
 Proactive Personality: people who identify opportunities, show  Self-esteem
initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.  Self-monitoring  Propensity for risk taking Locus of Control Machiavellianism
Conditions Favoring High Machs • Direct interaction
• Minimal rules and regulations
• Distracting emotions
Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring Risk-Taking  High Risk-taking Managers  Make quicker decisions.
 Use less information to make decisions.
 Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations.  Low Risk-taking Managers
 Are slower to make decisions.
 Require more information before making decisions.
 Exist in larger organizations with stable environments.  Risk Propensity
 Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job requirements
should be beneficial to organizations. 4
The Situation, Personality, and Behavior (1 of 2)
Contrast Terminal and Instrumental Values (1 of 3)
 Situation strength theory: indicates that the way personality translates
into behavior depends on the strength of the situation.
 Values: basic convictions about what is right, good, or desirable.
 The degree to which norms, cues, or standards dictate appropriate behavior.
 Value system: ranks values in terms of intensity.
 The Importance and Organization of Values
Clarity: degree to which cues about work duties and
responsibilities are available and clear  Values:
Consistency: the extent to which cues regarding work duties
Lay the foundation for understanding of
and responsibilities are compatible with one another attitudes and motivation.
Constraints: the extent to which individuals’ freedom to
decide or act is limited by forces outside their control
Influence attitudes and behaviors.
Consequences: the degree to which decisions or actions have
important implications for the organization or its members, clients, supplies, and so on. 5-24
Contrast Terminal and Instrumental Values
Contrast Terminal and Instrumental Values (2 of 3) (3 of 3)
Dominant Work Values in Today’s Workforce
 Terminal vs. Instrumental Values Entered the Approximate Workforce Current Age
 Terminal values: desirable Cohort Dominant Work Values end-states of existence. Boomers 1965–1985 50s to 70s Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of authority; loyalty to career Xers 1985–2000 Mid-30s to 50s Work-life balance, team-
 Instrumental values: oriented, dislike of rules; preferred modes of loyalty to relationships behavior or means of Millennials 2000 to present To mid-30s Confident, financial achieving terminal values. success, self-reliant but team-oriented; loyalty to both self and relationships Values in Values in the Rokeach the Rokeach Survey Survey (cont’d)
Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human
Source: M. Rokeach, The Nature of Human
Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973).
Values (New York: The Free Press, 1973). 5 Importance of Values
 Provide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and cultures.
 Influence our perception of the world around us.
 Represent interpretations of “right” and “wrong.”
 Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others. Mean Value Rankings of Executives, Union Members, and Activists
Source: Based on W. C. Frederick and J. Weber, “The Values of
Corporate Managers and Their Critics: An Empirical Description and
Normative Implications,” in W. C. Frederick and L. E. Preston (eds.)
Business Ethics: Research Issues and Empirical Studies (Greenwich,
CT: JAI Press, 1990), pp. 123–44.
Person-Job Fit vs. Person-Organization Fit (1
Person-Job Fit vs. Person-Organization Fit (2 of 3) of 3)
Holland’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations  Person-Organization Fit
 People high on extraversion fit well with Type
Personality Characteristics Congruent Occupations
aggressive and team-oriented cultures.
Realistic: Prefers physical activities
Shy, genuine, persistent, stable,
Mechanic, drill press operator,
that require skill, strength, and conforming, practical assembly-line worker, farmer coordination
 People high on agreeableness match up better
Investigative: Prefers activities that
Analytical, original, curious, Biologist, economist,
with a supportive organizational climate than one
involve thinking, organizing, and independent mathematician, news reporter understanding focused on aggressiveness.
Social: Prefers activities that involve
Sociable, friendly, cooperative, Social worker, teacher, helping and developing others understanding
counselor, clinical psychologist
 People high on openness to experience fit better in
Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated,
Conforming, efficient, practical, Accountant, corporate
organizations that emphasize innovation rather
orderly, and unambiguous activities unimaginative, inflexible
manager, bank teller, file clerk than standardization.
Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities Self-confident, ambitious, Lawyer, real estate agent,
in which there are opportunities to energetic, domineering public relations specialist,
influence others and attain power small business manager
Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,
unsystematic activities that allow idealistic, emotional, interior decorator creative expression impractical
Person-Job Fit vs. Person-Organization Fit
Hofstede’s Five Value Dimensions (3 of 3)  Other Dimensions of Fit
– Although person-job fit and person-organization  Hofstede’s Framework
fit are considered the most salient dimensions for
workplace outcomes, other avenues of fit are  Power distance worth examining.
 Individualism versus collectivism ▪ Person-group fit
 Masculinity versus femininity ▪ Person-supervisor fit
 Uncertainty avoidance
 Long-term versus short-term orientation 6 Hofstede’s Framework for Hofstede’s Framework Assessing Cultures (cont’d) Power Distance
The extent to which a society accepts that Collectivism Individualism Vs.
power in institutions and organizations is A tight social framework in distributed unequally. The degree to which which people expect people prefer to act as
Low distance: relatively equal power others in groups of which individuals rather than
between those with status/wealth and those they are a part to look a member of groups. without status/wealth after them and protect them.
High distance: extremely unequal power
distribution between those with
status/wealth and those without status/wealth Hofstede’s Framework Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d) (cont’d) Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity Vs.
The extent to which a society feels threatened by The extent to which the Femininity
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to society values work roles avoid them. The extent to which
•High Uncertainty Avoidance: of achievement, power, there is little Society does not like and control, and where differentiation
ambiguous situations & tries to assertiveness and between roles for avoid them. materialism are also men and women. valued.
•Low Uncertainty Avoidance: Society does not mind ambiguous situations & embraces them. Hofstede’s Framework
The GLOBE Framework for Assessing Culture (cont’d)
 The Global Leadership and Organizational
Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research Long-term Orientation Vs. Short-term Orientation
program updated Hofstede’s research. A national culture A national culture attribute
 Data from 825 organizations and 62 countries. attribute that that emphasizes the emphasizes the future, present and the here and
 Used variables similar to Hofstede’s. thrift, and persistence. now.  Added some news ones. 7
Perception and Individual Decision Making
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Bich Ngoc
National Economics University 0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• EXPLAIN THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION.
• DESCRIBE ATTRIBUTION THEORY.
• EXPLAIN THE LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND DECISION MAKING.
• CONTRAST THE RATIONAL MODEL OF DECISION MAKING WITH
BOUNDED RATIONALITY AND INTUITION.
• EXPLAIN HOW INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND
ORGANIZATIONAL CONSTRAINTS AFFECT DECISION MAKING. 1
WHAT IS PERCEPTION, AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? ….A process by which we assign causes or motives to explain people’s behavior
….an explanation of the cause of behavior:
how people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behavior 2 1
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION 3 ATTRIBUTION THEORY
That determination however depends on 3 factors: Distinctiveness: Consensus Consistency 4
EXPLAIN ATTRIBUTION THEORY (2 OF 10)
• CLARIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CAUSATION
• INTERNALLY CAUSED – THOSE THAT ARE BELIEVED TO BE
UNDER THE PERSONAL CONTROL OF THE INDIVIDUAL.
• EXTERNALLY CAUSED – RESULTING FROM OUTSIDE CAUSES. 5 2
EXPLAIN ATTRIBUTION THEORY (3 OF 10) 6 EXAMPLE 7
ERRORS AND BIASES IN ATTRIBUTIONS 8 3
ERRORS AND BIASES IN ATTRIBUTIONS (CONT’D) 9 FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS 10
FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS Recency Effects
The tendency to remember
recent information. If the recent
information is negative, the
person or object is evaluated negatively 11 4 FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS 12 APPLICATIONS OF SHORTCUTS IN ORGANIZATIONS • EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW
• EVIDENCE INDICATES THAT INTERVIEWERS MAKE
PERCEPTUAL JUDGMENTS THAT ARE OFTEN INACCURATE.
• INTERVIEWERS GENERALLY DRAW EARLY IMPRESSIONS
THAT BECOME VERY QUICKLY ENTRENCHED.
• STUDIES INDICATE THAT MOST INTERVIEWERS’
DECISIONS CHANGE VERY LITTLE AFTER THE FIRST
FOUR OR FIVE MINUTES OF THE INTERVIEW. 13 APPLICATIONS OF SHORTCUTS IN ORGANIZATIONS • PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS
• EVIDENCE DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE WILL ATTEMPT TO
VALIDATE THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF REALITY, EVEN WHEN THOSE PERCEPTIONS ARE FAULTY.
• SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY, OR THE PYGMALION
EFFECT, CHARACTERIZES THE FACT THAT PEOPLE’S
EXPECTATIONS DETERMINE THEIR BEHAVIOR.
• EXPECTATIONS BECOME REALITY. 14 5 APPLICATIONS OF SHORTCUTS IN ORGANIZATIONS • PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
• AN EMPLOYEE’S PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL IS VERY MUCH
DEPENDENT UPON THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS.
• MANY JOBS ARE EVALUATED IN SUBJECTIVE TERMS.
• SUBJECTIVE MEASURES ARE PROBLEMATIC BECAUSE OF
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION, CONTRAST EFFECTS, HALO EFFECTS, AND SO ON. 15 LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND DECISION MAKING
• INDIVIDUALS MAKE DECISIONS – CHOOSING FROM TWO OR MORE ALTERNATIVES.
• DECISION MAKING OCCURS AS A REACTION TO A PROBLEM.
• THERE IS A DISCREPANCY BETWEEN SOME CURRENT STATE
OF AFFAIRS AND SOME DESIRED STATE, REQUIRING
CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION.
• ONE PERSON’S PROBLEM IS ANOTHER’S SATISFACTORY STATE OF AFFAIRS. 16
LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTIONS AND INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING 17 6
STEPS IN THE RATIONAL DECISION- MAKING MODEL 18
RATIONAL MODEL OF DECISION MAKING
• ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RATIONAL MODEL • THE DECISION MAKER… • HAS COMPLETE INFORMATION.
• IS ABLE TO IDENTIFY ALL THE RELEVANT OPTIONS IN AN UNBIASED MANNER.
• CHOOSES THE OPTION WITH THE HIGHEST UTILITY.
• MOST DECISIONS IN THE REAL WORLD DON’T FOLLOW THE RATIONAL MODEL. 19 BOUNDED RATIONALITY
• MOST PEOPLE RESPOND TO A COMPLEX PROBLEM BY
REDUCING IT TO A LEVEL AT WHICH IT CAN BE READILY UNDERSTOOD.
• PEOPLE SATISFICE – THEY SEEK SOLUTIONS THAT ARE SATISFACTORY AND SUFFICIENT.
• INDIVIDUALS OPERATE WITHIN THE CONFINES OF BOUNDED RATIONALITY.
• THEY CONSTRUCT SIMPLIFIED MODELS THAT EXTRACT THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES. 20 7 HOW DOES BOUNDED RATIONALITY WORK?
• ONCE A PROBLEM IS IDENTIFIED, THE SEARCH FOR CRITERIA AND OPTIONS BEGINS.
• A LIMITED LIST OF THE MORE CONSPICUOUS CHOICES IS IDENTIFIED.
• THE DECISION MAKER THEN REVIEWS THE LIST,
LOOKING FOR A SOLUTION THAT IS “GOOD ENOUGH.” 21 INTUITION
• INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING OCCURS OUTSIDE
CONSCIOUS THOUGHT; IT RELIES ON HOLISTIC
ASSOCIATIONS, OR LINKS BETWEEN DISPARATE PIECES OF
INFORMATION, IS FAST, AND IS AFFECTIVELY CHARGED,
MEANING IT USUALLY ENGAGES THE EMOTIONS.
• THE KEY IS NEITHER TO ABANDON NOR RELY SOLELY ON
INTUITION, BUT TO SUPPLEMENT IT WITH EVIDENCE AND GOOD JUDGMENT. 22
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, ORGANIZATIONAL
CONSTRAINTS, AND DECISION MAKING (1 OF 2) • INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES • PERSONALITY • GENDER • MENTAL ABILITY • CULTURAL DIFFERENCES • NUDGING 23 8
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, ORGANIZATIONAL
CONSTRAINTS, AND DECISION MAKING (2 OF 2) • ORGANIZATIONAL CONSTRAINTS
• PERFORMANCE EVALUATION SYSTEMS • REWARD SYSTEMS • FORMAL REGULATIONS
• SYSTEM-IMPOSED TIME CONSTRAINTS • HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS 24
DESCRIBE THE THREE-STAGE MODEL OF CREATIVITY (1 OF 2)
• CREATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE NOVEL AND USEFUL IDEAS. • THESE ARE IDEAS THAT ARE DIFFERENT FROM WHAT HAS BEEN
DONE BEFORE, BUT THAT ARE ALSO APPROPRIATE TO THE PROBLEM. 25 COMMON ATTRIBUTES OF CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS
• BACKGROUND EXPERIENCES AND CREATIVITY
• PERSONAL TRAITS AND CREATIVITY: OPENNESS, AN ATTRACTION TO
COMPLEXITY, HIGH LEVELS OF ENERGY, AUTONOMY, SELF- CONFIDENCE
• COGNITIVE ABILITIES AND CREATIVITY:
• INDIVIDUAL’S POWER TO THINK INTELLIGENTLY AND
TO ANALYZE SITUATIONS AND DATA EFFECTIVELY.
• INTELLIGENCE: PRECONDITION FOR INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY
• CREATIVITY LINKS WITH THE ABILITY TO THINK
DIVERGENTLY (SEE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
SITUATIONS) AND CONVERGENTLY (SEE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SITUATIONS) 26 9 HOW TO FACILITATE INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY… ⚫ Leaders ⚫ Support new ideas ⚫ Good listener
⚫ Favourable and cooperative working environment ▪ Respect diversity ▪ Friendly and cooperative ▪Trust 27 10 Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
 Distinguish between the different types of groups. Foundation of Group
 Describe model of group development.
 Show how role requirements change in different Behavior situations.
 Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individual’s behavior.
INSTRUCTOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR., PHAM THI BICH NGOC
 Show how status and size differences affect group NEU performance.
 Describe how issues of cohesiveness and diversity
can be integrated for group effectiveness.
 Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. 0 1 Defining Groups Classifying Groups (cont’d)
 Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent,
who have come together to achieve particular objectives Relatively permanent Relatively temporary
 Two or more people who interact with one another such
that each person influences and is influenced by each formal other person
 Any number of people who (1) interact with one another;
(2) are psychological y aware of one another; and (3)
perceive themselves to be a group. informal 2 3 Functions of formal group The Five Stages of Group Development 1. Forming 2. Storming 3. Norming Stage 4. Performing Stage 5. Adjourning Stage 4 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1
Group Properties/Group Performance Group Property 1: Roles Factors  Role
 A set of expected behavior patterns Norms
attributed to someone occupying a Statu Roles
given position in a social unit s
 is the expected pattern of behaviors Group
associated with members occupying a Performa
particular position within the structure of nce the organization. Cohesive Compositi on ness Size 6 7 Group Property 1: Roles Group Property 1: Roles
 Role conflict can result in role stress  Role Perception
 Role ambiguity occurs when there is lack of clarity as
 An individual’s view of how he or she is
to the precise requirements of the role and the person is
supposed to act in a given situation – unsure what to do received by external stimuli
 Role overload is when a person faces too many  Role Expectations
separate roles or too great a variety of expectations.
 How others believe a person should act in
 Role underload can arise when the prescribed role a given situation
expectations fal short of the person’s perception of their role  Role conflict
 A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations 8 9 Group Property 2: Norms Group Property 2: Norms  Group Norms
 Is an assumption or expectation held by group
members concerning what kind of behavior is:
 Acceptable standards of behavior within a
group that are shared by the group’s  Right or wrong members  Good or bad
 Are the standards against which the  Allowed or not allowed
appropriateness of the behaviors of members  Appropriate or not appropriate are judged  Classes of Norms
 Determine behavior expected in a certain situation  Performance norms -  Appearance norms –
 Social arrangement norms –
 Allocation of resources norms
 Improvement and change norms 10 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 Group Property 3: Status Status Effects
A social y defined position or rank given to groups  On Norms and Conformity
or group members by others – it differentiates
 High-status members are less restrained by norms group members and pressure to conform
 Important factor in understanding behavior
 Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status  Significant motivator
members so long as it doesn’t affect group goal achievement  On Group Interaction
Status Characteristics Theory
 High-status members are more assertive
 Status derived from one of three sources:
 Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and
 Power a person has over others creativity
 Ability to contribute to group goals  Personal characteristics 12 13 Group Property 4: Size Group Property 4: Size
 Is the number of members of the group  Best use of a group:
 Twelve or more members is a “large” group
 Seven or fewer is a “small” group Attribute Small Large
 Affects resources available to perform the task Speed X Individual Performance X
 Affects degree of formalization of
interactions, communication, and Problem Solving X participation Diverse Input X Fact-finding Goals X
 Can increase the degree of social loafing Overall Performance X 14 15 Group Property 4: Size Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
 Factors that Determine Ideal Group Size  Group members’ ability
 Is the extent to which a group is committed to
 Maturity of individual group members staying together  Group tasks
 Degree to which group members are attracted to
each other and are motivated to stay in the
 Ability of the group leader group 16 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Factors contributing to group cohesiveness 18 19 Group Property 6 - Group Decision Making Composition
 Strengths of group decision making:
The degree of similarity or difference among group
 More complete information and
members on factors important to the group’s work knowledge Homogeneity
 Increased diversity of views
Degree to which members are similar in one or
several ways that are critical to the group’s work
 Increased acceptance of solutions
 Weaknesses of group decision making: Heterogeneity
Degree to which members differ in one or more  Time consuming
ways that are critical to the group’s work  Conformity pressures  Dominance of a few members  Ambiguous responsibility 20 21 Group Decision Making Group Decision Making (cont’d)
 Effectiveness and efficiency of group decisions:  Groupthink
 A mode of thinking that occurs when members of a  Accuracy (group)
group are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group
and the desire for unanimity offsets their motivation  Speed (individual)
to appraise alternative courses of action  Effects of Groupthink  Creativity (group)
 Consideration of and focus on fewer alternatives  Acceptance (group)
 Failure to perceive non-obvious risks and drawbacks of an alternative
 Rejection of expert opinions
 Ignoring potential for setbacks or actions of
competitors in not developing contingency plans 22 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 Group Decision Making Group Decision Making
 Most group decision making takes place in
 Brainstorming can overcome pressures for interacting groups. conformity.
 Members meet face-to-face and rely on
 In a brainstorming session:
both verbal and nonverbal interaction
The group leader states the problem.
to communicate with each other.
Members then “free-wheel” as many
 Interacting groups often censor themselves alternatives as they can.
and pressure individual members toward No criticism is al owed. conformity of opinion.
One idea stimulates others, and group
members are encouraged to “think the unusual.” 24 25 Group Decision Making Group Decision Making
 The nominal group technique: restricts  Steps for a nominal group:
discussion or interpersonal communication
during the decision making process.
 Each member independently writes
down his/her ideas on the problem.
 Nominal groups outperform brainstorming groups.
 After this silent period, each member
presents one idea to the group.
 The ideas are discussed for clarity.
 Each group member rank-orders the ideas.
 The idea with the highest aggregate
ranking determines the final decision. 26 27 Evaluating Group Effectiveness Type of Group Brain- Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Nominal Electronic storming Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High Social Pressure High Low Moderate Low Money Costs Low Low Low High Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Task Orientation Low High High High Potential for Interpersonal High Low Moderate Moderate Conflict Commitment to Solution High N/A Moderate Moderate Development of Group High High Moderate Low Cohesiveness 28
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5 Learning Objectives
➢ Analyze the continued popularity of teams in organizations. Understanding Work Teams
➢ Contrast groups and teams.
➢ Contrast the five types of team arrangements.
➢ Identify the characteristics of effective teams.
➢ Explain how organizations can create team players.
Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, PhD.
➢Decide when to use individuals instead of teams. NEU
Analyze the Growing Popularity of Teams in
Differences Between Groups and Teams Organizations ➢
Comparing Workgroups and Work Teams Why are teams popular?
– Teams can achieve feats an individual could never accomplish.
– Teams are flexible and responsive to changing events.
– They can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband.
– They are an effective means to democratize
organizations and increase employee involvement.
– They introduce a collaborative mindset. Types of Teams More Types of Teams ➢ Problem-Solving Teams ➢ Cross-Functional Teams
– Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the
– Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from
same department who meet for a few
different work areas, who come together to accomplish a
hours each week to discuss ways of task
improving quality, efficiency, and the – Very common work environment – Task forces ➢ Self-Managed Work Teams – Committees
– Groups of 10 to 15 people who take ➢
on the responsibilities of their former Work teams supervisors ➢ Management teams
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 A Final Type of Team A Team-Effectiveness Model ➢ Virtual Teams
– Teams that use computer technology to tie
together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal ➢ Characteristics – Limited socializing
– The ability to overcome time and space constraints
➢ To be effective, needs: – Trust among members – Close monitoring – To be publicized
Creating Effective Teams: Context
Creating Effective Teams: Composition ➢ Adequate Resources
How should teams be staffed?
– Need the tools to complete the job
➢ Abilities of Members
➢ Effective Leadership and Structure
– Need technical expertise, problem-solving, decision-making, and good interpersonal skills
– Agreeing to the specifics of work and how the team fits
➢ Personality of Members
together to integrate individual skills – – Even “self
Conscientiousness, openness to experience, and -managed” teams need leaders
agreeableness all relate to team performance
– Leadership especially important in multi-team systems
➢ Allocating Roles and Diversity ➢ Climate of Trust
– Many necessary roles must be filled
– Members must trust each other and the leader
– Diversity can often lead to lower performance
➢ Performance and Rewards Systems that Reflect Team ➢ Size of Team Contributions
– The smaller the better: 5 to 9 is optimal
– Cannot just be based on individual effort
➢ Member’s Preference for Teamwork
– Do the members want to be on teams? Key Roles On Teams
Creating Effective Teams: Process
➢ Commitment to a Common Purpose
– Create a common purpose that provides direction
– Have reflexivity: willing to adjust plan if necessary
➢ Establishment of Specific Team Goals
– Must be specific, measurable, realistic, and challenging ➢ Team Efficacy
– Team believes in its ability to succeed ➢ Mental Models
– Have an accurate and common mental map of how the work gets done
➢ A Managed Level of Conflict
– Task conflicts are helpful; interpersonal conflicts are not
➢ Minimized Social Loafing
– Team holds itself accountable both individually and as a team
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2
Turning Individuals into Team Players
Beware! Teams Aren’t Always the Answer Creating Team Players
Teams take more time and resources than does individual ➢ work. Selection –
➢Three tests to see if a team fits the situation:
Make team skills one of the interpersonal skills in the hiring process.
1. Is the work complex and is there a need for different ➢
perspectives: will it be better with the insights of more than Training one person?
– Individualistic people can learn
2. Does the work create a common purpose or set of goals for ➢ Rewards
the group that is larger than the aggregate of the goals for individuals?
– Rework the reward system to encourage cooperative efforts
rather than competitive (individual) ones
3. Are members of the group involved in interdependent tasks?
– Continue to recognize individual contributions while still
emphasizing the importance of teamwork
Costs of Teams in Organizations
Benefits of Teams in Organizations Managerial role confusion/frustration Team-Based Environment Benefits
Managerial sense of loss of usefulness Difficulties in changing to a Employee resistance team-based to role changes organization Enhanced Employee Reduced Organizational Cumbersome and lengthy performance benefits costs enhancements
team development process
Losses due to premature
abandonment of the process
Benefits of Teams in Organizations Team-Based Environment Benefits Enhanced Employee Reduced Organizational performance benefits costs enhancements
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
 Describe the functions and process COMMUNICATION of communication.
 Contrast downward, upward, and lateral
communication through smal -group networks and the grapevine.
INSTRUCTOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR. PHAM THI BICH NGOC
 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication. NEU
 Describe how channel richness underlies the
choice of communication channel.
 Differentiate between automatic and controlled
processing of persuasive messages.
 Identify common barriers to effective communication.
 Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross- cultural communication 0 1 What is Communication? The Communication Process  Communication
 The transference and understanding of meaning 2 3
Describe the Functions and Process
Describe the Functions and Process
of Communication (1 of 7)
of Communication (2 of 7)
Communication serves five major
Communication acts to manage member
functions within a group or organization: behavior in several ways.  Management
 Authority hierarchies and formal guidelines.  Feedback  Emotional sharing
 Job descriptions and company policies.  Persuasion
 Workgroup teasing or harassing.  Information exchange 4 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 Communication Channels Direction of Communication  Channel
 The medium selected by the sender through which
the message travels to the receiver Downward  Types of Channels  Formal Channels Lateral  Informal Channels Upward 6 7 Three Common Formal Small-Group Networks Communication networks  Chain:
 Rigidly fol ows the chain of command Networks Networks Networks
 Each member communicates with the person above
and below, except for the individuals on each end
who communicate with only one person Criteria Chain Wheel All-Channel  Wheel: Speed Moderate Fast Fast
 Information flows between the person at the end of
each spoke and the person in the middle Accuracy High High Moderate Emergence of a  Circle Network leader Moderate High None
 Each member communicates with the people on
both sides but with no one else Member satisfaction Moderate Low High  Al Channel:
 All group members communicate actively with each other 8 9 The Grapevine Reducing Rumors 1.
Announce timetables for making important decisions
 Three Main Grapevine Characteristics 2.
Explain decisions and behaviors that may 1.
Informal, not controlled by management
appear inconsistent or secretive 2.
Perceived by most employees as being more
believable and reliable than formal 3.
Emphasize the downside, as wel as the communications
upside, of current decisions and future plans 3.
Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it 4.
Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—they
are almost never as anxiety-provoking as  Results from: the unspoken fantasy 
Desire for information about important situations  Ambiguous conditions  Conditions that cause anxiety  Insightful to managers
 Serves employee’s social needs 10 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 Communication Networks Communication Networks (cont’d) (cont’d)
 Characteristics of Communication Networks
 Organizational Communication Networks
 Networks form spontaneously as interactions among
 Communication and information flows do not workers continue
necessarily fol ow the lines of an organization chart
 Networks rarely are permanent
 Downward communication provides directions
 Task is crucial to the choice of a network pattern
 Upward communication provides feedback
 Environment affects the frequency and types of interactions among members
 Horizontal communication is related to task performance
 Personal factors and group performance factors
influence communication networks
 Networks strongly influence group effectiveness
 Electronic groups that have little face-to-face
communication are an emerging trend 12 13 Methods of Communication Methods of Communication  Oral Communication  Written Communication  Nonverbal Communication 14 15 Methods of Communication Methods of Communication
Al ocation of Time at Work for Managers and Professionals
Note: CareerBuilder survey of over 2,000 hiring professionals.
Source: Based on M. Chui et al., “The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies,”
Source: Based on CareerBuilder at
McKinsey and Company, July 2012, http://www.mckinsey.com.
http://www.careerbuilder.com/JobPoster/Resources/page.aspx?pagever=2012SocialMedia&template=none. 16 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Methods of Communication Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication
 Includes body movements, the intonations or
emphasis we give to words, facial expressions,
and the physical distance between the sender Elements of Nonverbal and receiver. Communication
 Body language can convey status, level of
engagement, and emotional state.
Advantages: Supports other communications and
provides observable expression of emotions and Facial Physical Environmental feelings Expressions Movements Elements
Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or Body
gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of Language message 18 19 Nonverbal Communication Methods of Communication
Physical distance also has meaning.
 What is considered proper spacing between  Choice Considerations
people largely depends on cultural norms.
 Audience (physical or not physical presence)
 Nature of the message (urgency and secrecy)
A businesslike distance in some European
countries feels intimate in many parts of  Costs of transmission North America.
 Distance may indicate aggressiveness or
sexual interest, or it may signal disinterest or
displeasure with what is being said. 20 21 Channel Richness and Choice
Channel Richness and Choice
of Communication Channel of Communication Channel (2 of 4) (1 of 4)
The choice of channel depends on whether the message is routine.
 Routine messages tend to be straightforward
and have a minimum of ambiguity.
Choose oral communication when you need
to gauge the receiver’s receptivity.
Written communication is more reliable for
complex and lengthy communications.
Sources: Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort
Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), 311. 22 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 Barriers to Effective More Barriers to Effective Communication Communication  Filtering  Language
 A sender’s manipulation of information so that it wil be
seen more favorably by the receiver
 Words have different meanings to different people  Communication Apprehension  Selective Perception
 People selectively interpret what they see on the basis
 Undue tension and anxiety about oral
of their interests, background, experience, and
communication, written communication, or both attitudes  Gender Differences  Information Overload
 Men tend to talk to emphasize status while women
 A condition in which information inflow exceeds an talk to create connections
individual’s processing capacity  Emotions
 How a receiver feels at the time a message is received
wil influence how the message is interpreted 24 25
Communication Barriers and Cultural High- Context vs. Low- Cont ext Cultu res 26 27 Overcoming Problems in Cross-
Cultural Communication (3 of 3) A Cultural Guide  Know yourself.
 Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy.
 State facts, not your interpretation.
 Consider the other person’s viewpoint.
 Proactively maintain the identity of the group. 28
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5 What Is Leadership?  Leadership
 The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals
 Not al leaders are managers, nor are al managers leaders.
 Is a property—the set of characteristics attributed to someone
who is perceived to use influence successful y
 Is influence—the ability to affect the perceptions, beliefs,
attitudes, motivation, and/or behavior of others Leadership  Management
 Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain
compliance from organizational members
Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, Assoc. Prof., Dr.
 Both are necessary for organizational success NEU 0 1 Trait Approaches to Behavioral Approaches of Leadership Leadership
 Trait Approaches to Leadership
 Proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders
 Attempts to identify stable and enduring character traits from non-leaders
that differentiate effective leaders from non-leaders focusing on:
 Behavioral theories of leadership imply we can train
 Identifying leadership traits people to be leaders.
 Developing methods for measuring them
 Using the methods to select leaders
 Current limited set of leadership traits
 Emotional intelligence, drive, motivation; honesty and
integrity, self-confidence, cognitive ability, knowledge of the business, charisma
 Traits can predict leadership, but they are better at
predicting leader emergence than effectiveness. 2 3 Behavioral Approaches to The Michigan Studies Leadership Early Studies in Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
Two key dimensions of leader behavior:
Employee-oriented/ Employee- centered The Michigan The Ohio State The Leadership Studies Studies Grid Production-oriented / Job- centered 4 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 The Ohio State Studies The Leadership Grid
Found two key dimensions of leader behavior:
 Provides a means for evaluating leadership styles and then training
managers to move toward an ideal style of behavior Initiating structure
 Draws on both studies to assess leadership style Consideration
 “Concern for People” is Consideration and Employee-Orientation
 “Concern for Production” is Initiating Structure and Production- Both are important Orientation
 Style is determined by position on the graph 6 7 The Emergence of Contingency The Leadership Leadership Models Grid®
 While trait and behavior theories do help us understand
leadership, an important component is missing: the environment in which the leader exists
 Situational leadership theories deals with this additional aspect
of leadership effectiveness studies
 Assume that appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another situation
 Seek to identify how key situational factors interact to
determine appropriate leader behavior  Three key theories:  Fielder’s Model
Source: The Leadership Grid Figure
from Leadership Dilemmas—Grid
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Solutions by Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. (Formerly the  Path-Goal Theory
Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake
and Jane S. Mouton.) Houston: Gulf
Publishing Company, p. 29. Copyright
1997 by Grid International, Inc.
Reproduced by permission of Grid International, Inc. 8 9 The Fiedler contingency model 10 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leader–Member Exchange Leadership Theory
Degree of fol ower’s readiness to assume personal responsibility: R1 R2 R3 R4 Unable Unable Able Able Unwil ing Willing Unwil ing Willing S1 S2 S3 S4 Telling: Sel ing: Participating: Delegating: Instructing & Explaining & Sharing & Coaching & supervising clarifying facilitating assisting
Leadership behavior appropriate to the situation 12 13
Contemporary Approaches to Leadership LMX Model
 How groups are assigned is unclear
 Fol ower characteristics determine group membership  Charismatic Leadership
 Leaders control by keeping favorites close
 Transformational, Transactional Leadership
 Research has been generally supportive 14 15
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Transactional Leader
Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises
rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.
Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations
from rules and standards, takes corrective action.
Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met.
Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions Transformational Leader
Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust.
Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to
focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.
Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful
Reference: David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman, “Beyond the Charismatic Leader: Leadership and problem solving.
Organizational Change,” California Management Review, Winter 1990, pp. 70–97.
Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee
individually, coaches, advises. 16 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3
Role of Leaders in Creating Ethical Organizations (2
Role of Leaders in Creating Ethical Organizations (3 of 3) of 3) Ethical Leadership
Ethics touches on leadership at a number of junctures. Servant Leadership
Efforts have been made to combine ethical
Servant leaders go beyond their self-
and charismatic leadership into an idea of interest and instead focus on
socialized charismatic leadership – leadership
opportunities to help fol owers grow
that conveys other-centered values by and develop.
leaders who model ethical conduct.
Characteristic behaviors include
listening, empathizing, persuading,
accepting stewardship, and actively
developing fol owers’ potential. 18 19
Chal enges to our Understanding of Leadership (2 of
Chal enges to our Understanding of Leadership (3 of 5) 5)
Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leadership
Defining Characteristics Relationship-Oriented Task-Oriented Leadership Leadership Online Leadership Individual Black Black Experience/training No effect on Substitutes for  Needs more research. Professionalism Substitutes for Substitutes for
 Today’s managers and employees are
increasingly linked by networks rather than Indifference to rewards Neutralizes Neutralizes geographic proximity. Job Black Black
Online leaders have to think careful y Highly structured task No effect on Substitutes for
about what actions they want their digital Provides its own No effect on Substitutes for messages to initiate. feedback
Identification-based trust is difficult to Intrinsical y satisfying Substitutes for No effect on
achieve without face-to-face interaction. Organization Black Black
Writing skil s are likely to become an Explicit formalized goals No effect on Substitutes for
extension of interpersonal skil s. Rigid rules and No effect on Substitutes for procedures Cohesive work groups Substitutes for Substitutes for 20 21
Chal enges to our Understanding of Leadership (4 of 5)
Chal enges to our Understanding of Leadership (5 of 5) Selecting Leaders Training Leaders
Identifying effective leaders:
– Leadership training is likely to be more successful
Review specific requirements for the with high self-monitors. position.
– Teach implementation skil s.
Consider personality tests to identify
– Teach trust building, mentoring, and situational- leadership traits. analysis.
Situation-specific experience is relevant.
– Behavioral training through modeling exercises
can increase an individual’s charismatic
Plan for a change in leadership. leadership qualities.
– Review leadership after key organizational events.
– Train in transformational leadership skil s. 22 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 Emerging Issues in Emerging Issues in Leadership (cont’d) Leadership (cont’d)  Strategic Leadership
 Why Ethical Leadership Is Essential
 Requires that leaders be capable of:
 Increasing pressure for high ethical standards for
 Understanding the complexities of both the organization and its environment leadership positions
 Leading change in the organization to achieve and maintain a superior
alignment between the organization and its environment
 Increasing pressure to hold leaders accountable for their  Managerial requirements: actions
 Encompassing understanding of the organization
 Increasing environmental pressure for stronger corporate
 Firm grasp of the organization’s environment governance models
 Awareness of firm’s alignment with the environment
 Ability to improve the alignment 24 25 Emerging Issues in Leadership (cont’d)
 Virtual Leadership Challenges
 Changes in leadership and mentoring as in-person
contact replaces virtual contact
 Less nonverbal communication
 Increasing importance of e-mail’s role in conveying
appreciation, reinforcement, and constructive feedback
 Face-to-face leadership skil s become critical as
opportunities decrease for direct contact 26
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5
The Nature of Organization Structure  Organization Structure
 The system of task, reporting, and authority relationships within
which an organization does its work
 Purpose of structure is to order and coordinate the actions of Foundations of
employees to achieve organizational goals Organization Structure
 “Structure follows strategy”
Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, PhD. NEU 0 1 Objectives of Organizational Organization Chart Structure 
Describes the structure of an organization 
Shows all people, positions, reporting relationships, and lines of formal communication
 To link individuals in an established network of 
Depicts reporting relationships and work group memberships relationships 
Shows how positions and small work groups are combined into departments which
make up the shape (configuration) of the organization
 To group together the tasks required to fufil the 
Units and relationships among them
objectives of the organization as a whole and to
allocate them to suitable individuals or groups 
Formal communication and reporting channels 
Structure of authority, responsibility and delegation
 To allocate to individuals or groups the authority  Different types of chart:
they require to perform their functions  Vertical chart
 To coordinate the objectives and activities of  Horizontal chart separated units  Concentric chart
 To enable the flow of work, information and other  Matrix chart
resources via lines of cooperation and communication 
“Metaphors”: network spider web 2 3
Identify Seven Elements of an Organization’s Structure Organization Chart
 Organization chart: aid managerial thinking and
Key Design Questions and Answers for Designing the Proper communication but: Organizational Structure
 Static not dynamic as organization
 Formal structrure of authority and communication, not The Key Question
The Answer Is Provided by present informal organiztion
1. To what degree are activities subdivided into Work specialization separate jobs?
 Describe the structure of org, not the org itself (mission,
2. On what basis will jobs be grouped together? Departmentalization values, people, activities)
3. To whom do individuals and groups report? Chain of command
4. How many individuals can a manager Span of control
efficiently and effectively direct?
5. Where does decision-making authority lie?
Centralization and decentralization
6. To what degree will there be rules and Formalization
regulations to direct employees and managers?
7. Do individuals from different areas need to Boundary spanning regularly interact? 4 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 Work Specialization/Labour Work specialization Division
Work specialization: the division of labor into separate
➢ The way the organization’s work is divided into activities.
different jobs to be done by different people – Repetition of work.
 The process of dividing work into relatively specialized jobs to
achieve the advantages of specialization
– Training for specialization.
 Division of labor can occur by:
– Increasing efficiency through invention.
 Dividing work into different personal specialties. – Henry Ford
 Dividing work into different activities necessitated
by the natural sequence of the work the organization does. 6 7 Work Specialization Departmentalization Economies and Diseconomies
 The basis by which jobs are grouped together  Grouping Activities by:  Function  Product  Geography  Process
 Specialization can reach a point of diminishing returns  Customer
 Then job enlargement gives greater efficiencies than does specialization 8 9 Customer Functional Departmentalization Departmentalization
 Jobs are combined according to the functions of the organization.
 Customers and clients can be a basis for grouping jobs.
 The principal advantage is efficiency.
 Examples of customer-oriented departments include:
 By having departments of specialists, management  Educational institutions creates efficient units.
 The loan department in a commercial bank
 A major disadvantage is that organizational goals may be  Telephone companies
sacrificed in favor of departmental goals.  Department stores 10 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 Geographic Product Departmentalization Departmentalization
 Groups are established according to geographic area.
 All jobs associated with producing and selling a product or
product line are placed under the direction of one
 The logic is that all activities in a given region should be manager. assigned to a manager.
 Product becomes the preferred basis as a firm grows by
 Advantageous in large organizations because physical
increasing the number of products it markets.
separation of activities makes centralized coordination difficult.
 Concentrating authority, responsibility, and accountability
in a specific product department allows top management
 Provides a training ground for managerial personnel. to coordinate actions. 12 13 Combined Bases for
Chain of Command/Administrative hierarchy Departmentalization: The Matrix Organization  Chain of Command 
System of reporting relationships in the
 The matrix organization attempts to maximize the
organization from the first level up through the
strengths and minimize the weaknesses of both the president or CEO functional and product bases. 
The unbroken line of authority that extends
from the top of the organization to the lowest
 Typically seen as a balanced compromise between
echelon and clarifies who reports to whom
functional and product organization.  Unity of Command
 Characterized by the existence of a dual authority 
A subordinate should have only one superior to
system, which can cause conflicts.
whom he or she is directly responsible
 Facilitates the utilization of highly specialized staff and 
Organizational downsizing results in lower overhead
costs, less bureaucracy, faster decision making, equipment.
smoother communications, and increases in productivity
 The flexibility of this system allows speedy response to challenges. 14 15 Chain of command
Chain of Command/Administrative hierarchy
The chain of command is less relevant today because of
technology and the trend of empowering people.  Responsibility
 Operating employees make decisions once reserved
 An obligation to do something with the expectation of achieving some act or output for management.  Authority
 Increased popularity of self-managed and cross-
 The rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and functional teams.
to expect the orders to be obeyed
 Power that has been legitimized within a particular social
Many organizations still find that enforcing the chain of context command is productive.
 Originates in the ownership of the organization
 The relationship between responsibility and authority must be one of parity
 Can be delegated down to others
 Delegation is the transfer to others of authority to make decisions
and use organizational resources 16 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Span of Control
Chain of Command/Administrative hierarchy
The number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and effectively direct
 An Alternative View of Authority
 Wider spans of management increase organizational
 Acceptance Theory of Authority efficiency
 The authority of a manager depends on their subordinates’
acceptance of the manager’s right to give directives and to  Narrow span drawbacks: expect compliance with them
 By either accepting or rejecting the directives of a supervisor,
 Expense of additional layers of management
workers can limit supervisory authority
 Increased complexity of vertical communication
 Encouragement of overly tight supervision and
discouragement of employee autonomy 18 19 Contrasting Spans of Control Conditions Affecting Span of Control
 Optimal unit size (span of control) depends on: 1.
The coordination requirements within the unit, including
factors such as the degree of job specialization 2. Degree of specialization
3. Ability to communicate and manage 4.
The similarity of the tasks in the unit 5.
The type of information available or needed by unit members 6.
Differences in the members’ need for autonomy 7.
The extent to which members need direct access to the supervisor 20 21 Centralization and Delegation of Authority Decentralization
 Delegation of authority: the process of distributing  Centralization
authority downward in an organization.
 The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a
single point in the organization.
 Managers decide how much authority should be
 Decision-making authority is concentrated at the top of
delegated to each job and to each jobholder. the organizational hierarchy  Decentralization
 The benefits of decentralizing authority include:
 The degree to which decision making is spread throughout
 Relatively high delegation of authority encourages the the organization.
development of professional managers.
 Decisions are made throughout the hierarchy.
 Managers who have high authority can exercise more
autonomy, and thus satisfy their desires to participate in problem solving. 22 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 Reasons to Centralize Delegation Decision Authority Guidelines
 Managers must be trained to make the decisions that go
 Delegation of authority differs among individuals,
with delegated authority, and training can be quite
depending on each person’s ability to make decisions. expensive.
 If a local manager is incapable of making decisions,
 Managers accustomed to making decisions may resist
decision making should be centralized, regardless of how
delegating authority to their subordinates, which can routine the decisions. reduce effectiveness.
 Capable individuals aren’t always motivated individuals.
 Administrative costs are incurred because new control
systems must be developed to provide top management
 Motivation must accompany competency to create
with information about the effects of subordinates
conducive conditions for decentralization. decisions.
 Decentralization means duplication of functions. 24 25 Formalization Boundary spanning
➢ The degree to which rules and procedures shape
the jobs and activities of employees
Boundary spanning occurs when individuals form
 The degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized.
relationships with people outside their formally assigned groups.  High formalization
 Minimum worker discretion in how to get the job done
 Positive results are especially strong in organizations
 Many rules and procedures to follow
that encourage extensive internal communication; in  Low formalization
other words, external boundary spanning is most
 Job behaviors are nonprogrammed
effective when it is followed up with internal
 Employees have maximum discretion boundary spanning.
 Good managers use appropriate judgment in making exceptions to rules in recognizing that:
 Individuals are unique with meaningful differences
 There are commonalities among employees 26 27 Simple Structure Simple Structure
 A structure characterized by a low degree of departmentalization,
wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization
Simple structure: the manager and the owner are one and the same.  Strengths: Simple, fast, and flexible. Inexpensive to maintain. Accountability is clear.  Weaknesses:
Difficult to maintain in anything other than small organizations.
Risky—everything depends on one person. 28 29
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5 Bureaucracy Matrix Designs
 A structure of highly operating routine tasks 
Combines two different designs to gain the benefits of each.
achieved through specialization, very 
A structure that creates dual lines of authority and combines
functional and product departmentalization
formalized rules and regulations, tasks that  Key Elements
are grouped into functional departments,
 Gains the advantages of functional and product
departmentalization while avoiding their weaknesses
centralized authority, narrow spans of
 Facilitates coordination of complex and interdependent
control, and decision making that follows the activities
 Breaks down unity-of-command concept chain of command 
Matrix structure is appropriate when: 1.
External pressure exists for a dual focus 2.
Pressure exists for a high information-processing capacity 3.
Pressure exists for shared focus 30 31
Matrix Structure (College of Business Administration)
New Design Options: Virtual/Network Organization
 A small, core organization that (Director) outsources its major business functions
 Highly centralized with little or no departmentalization (Dean) Employee
Provides maximum flexibility while concentrating on what the organization does best
Reduced control over key parts of the business 32 33
New Design Options: Virtual/Network Organization The team structure The Virtual Organization
The team structure: eliminates the chain of command
and replaces departments with empowered teams.
 The essence of the virtual organization is that it
is typically a small, core organization that
 Removes vertical and horizontal boundaries.
outsources major business functions.
 Breaks down external barriers.
Also referred to as a modular or network
– Flattens the hierarchy and minimizes status and organization. rank.
It is highly centralized, with little or no departmentalization.
• When fully operational, the team structure may break down geographic barriers. 34 35
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 6 The circular structure Mechanistic vs. Organic Structural
• In the circular structure: in the center are the
executives, and radiating outward in rings grouped by
function are the managers, then the specialists, then the workers.
– Has intuitive appeal for creative entrepreneur.
– However, employees may be unclear about whom
they report to and who is running the show.
• We are still likely to see the popularity of the circular structure spread. 36 37 Contingency Design Theories
The Relationship Between Strategy and  “S S t tr ruc uc tur tur e fo e
llows strategy” (Alfred Chandler)
 Contingency design theory: emphasizes the importance of
 Management determines what the organization is to do and what its goals
fitting a design to the demands of a situation, including:
are before designing appropriate structure  Innovation Strategy  Technology
 A strategy that emphasizes the introduction of major new products and services  Environmental uncertainty  Organic structure best  Cost-minimization Strategy  Strategy
 A strategy that emphasizes tight cost controls, avoidance of unnecessary
innovation or marketing expenses, and price cutting  Organization size  Mechanistic model best  Imitation Strategy
 The essence of this approach is expressed by this question:
 A strategy that seeks to move into new products or new markets only after their
viability has already been proven
Under what circumstances, and in what situations, is either
 Mixture of the two types of structure
the mechanistic or organic design relatively more effective? 38 39
The Relationship Between Strategy The Relationship Between and Structure Size and Structure
An organization’s structure is a means to help
management achieve its objectives.  Size
Most current strategy frameworks focus on three strategy
 As measured by employee total, organization asset value, sales total, total
of clients served, physical capacity dimensions:
 Large organizations have a more complex structure
 Large size -employing 2,000 or more people- is associated with greater  Innovation
specialization of labor, wider spans of control, more hierarchical levels, greater formalization  Cost Minimization
 Large organizations are more efficient and take advantage of economies of scale  Imitation
 The impact of size becomes less important as an organization expands. 40 41
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 7
The Relationship Between Technology and Structure
The Relationship Between Technology and Structure
 The mechanistic design is effective for firms that mass
Technology: the way an organization transfers its
produce products, such as clothing, foods, and inputs into outputs. automobiles.
 Numerous studies have examined the technology- structure relationship.
 Tasks are fairly routine, where workers tend machines
designed and paced by engineering standards.
 Organizational structures adapt to their technology.
 Actual control of the work flow is separated from supervision of the workforce.
 In such organizations, the ideas of scientific
management and mechanistic design are applicable. 42 43
The Relationship Between Environment and Structure
Analyze the Behavioral Implications of
Different Organizational Designs (2 of 2)  Environment 
Institutions or forces outside the organization that potentially affect the
Organizational Designs and Employee Behavior organization’s performance
 All elements that lie outside the organization boundary
 Work specialization contributes to higher
 People, other organizations, economic factors, objects, events employee productivity.  General environment
 No evidence supports a relationship between
 All of a broad set of dimensions and factors within which the organization operates
span of control and employee satisfaction or
 Political-legal, social, cultural, technological, economic, international performance.  Task environment
 Specific organizations, groups, individuals who influence the organization
 Fairly strong evidence links centralization and 
Three key dimensions: capacity, volatility, and complexity
job satisfaction, meaning that less centralization
is associated with higher satisfaction.
 National culture influences the preference for structure. 44 45
Implications for Managers (1 of 3)
Organizational Structure: Its Determinants and Outcomes 46
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 8 The Nature of Organization Culture  Organizational Culture Organizational Culture
 A set of values held by individuals in a firm that
help employees understand acceptability of actions
Instructor: Pham Thi Bich Ngoc, Assoc. Prof., Dr. 0 1 Levels of The Nature of Organization organizational Visible Culture Culture Culture Expressed Values  Culture Values
 Are often taken for granted (implicit)
 May not be made explicit (i.e., not written down) Core Values
 Are communicated through symbolic means; Are passed
from one generation to the next
 Organizations are able to operate efficiently only when
shared values exist among the employees.
 An individual’s personal values guide behavior on and off the job. 2 3 Do Organizations Have Common Characteristics of Uniform Cultures? Organizational Culture
 Most organizations have a dominant culture and Strong versus Weak Cultures numerous sets of subcultures.
Culture versus Formalization
 The dominant culture expresses the core values a
majority of members share and that give the
 High formalization creates predictability,
organization distinct personality. orderliness, and consistency.
 Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations
to reflect common problems, situations, or
 Formalization and culture are two different roads experiences that members face. to the same destination. 4 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 What Do Cultures Do? What Do Cultures Do?
The trend toward decentralized organizations makes  Culture’s Functions
culture more important than ever, but also makes 1.
Defines the boundary between one organization and others
establishing a strong culture more difficult. 2.
Conveys a sense of identity for its members
Individual-organization “fit”— whether the
applicant’s or employee’s attitudes and behavior are 3.
Facilitates the generation of commitment to something larger than self-interest
compatible with the culture — strongly influences
who gets a job offer, a favorable performance 4.
Enhances the stability of the social system review, or a promotion. 5.
Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism for fitting employees in the organization 6 7 What Do Cultures Do? What Do Cultures Do?
The Ethical Dimension of Culture Culture Creates Climate
 Organizational cultures are not neutral in their
ethical orientation, even when they are not openly
 Organizational climate is shared
perceptions about the organization and pursuing ethical goals. work environment.
Over time, the ethical work climate (EWC), or
 Team spirit at the organizational level.
the shared concept of right and wrong behavior
in that workplace, develops as part of the
 Climates can interact with one another to produce behavior. organizational climate.
 Climate also influences the habits people
 The ethical climate reflects the true values of the adopt.
organization and shapes the ethical decision making of its members. 8 9 What Do Cultures Do? What Do Cultures Do?
Studies of ethical climates and workplace outcomes
• Sustainability: practices that can be maintained over very
suggest that some climate categories are likely to be
long periods of time because the tools or structures that
found in certain organizations.
support the practices are not damaged by the processes.
By measuring the collective levels of moral sensitivity,
– Social sustainability practices.
judgment, motivation, and character of our
– Sustainable management doesn’t need to be purely
organizations, we may be able to judge the strength of altruistic.
the influence our ethical climates have on us.
• To create a truly sustainable business, an organization must
develop a long-term culture and put its values into practice.
• Like other cultural practices we’ve discussed, sustainability
needs time and nurturing to grow. 10 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 What Do Cultures Do? What Do Cultures Do? Culture and Innovation Culture as an Asset
 The most innovative companies have
 Culture can significantly contribute to an
open, unconventional, collaborative,
organization’s bottom line in many ways.
vision-driven, and accelerating cultures.
 There are many more cases of business success
stories because of excellent organizational cultures
 Startup firms often have innovative cultures.
than there are of success stories despite bad
cultures, and almost no success stories because of
They are usually small, agile, and
focused on solving problems in bad ones. order to survive and grow. 12 13 What Do Cultures Do? Creating and Sustaining Culture as a Liability Culture (1 of 6)  Institutionalization How a Culture Begins  Barrier to change
 Ultimate source of an organization’s culture is its
 Occurs when culture’s values are not aligned with the values necessary for founders. rapid change
 Founders have the vision of what the organization  Barrier to diversity should be.
 Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform,
which may lead to institutionalized bias
Unconstrained by previous ideologies or customs.
 Barrier to acquisitions and mergers
 New organizations are typically small, which
 Incompatible cultures can destroy an otherwise successful merger
facilitates the founders’ imparting of their vision on all organizational members. 14 15 Creating and Sustaining Creating and Sustaining Culture (2 of 6) Culture (3 of 6)
Culture creation occurs in three ways: Keeping a Culture Alive
 Founders hire employees who think and feel the  Selection way they do.
Identify and hire individuals with
 Employees are indoctrinated and socialized into the
the knowledge, skills, and abilities founders’ way of thinking. to perform successfully.
 Founders’ own behavior encourages employees to Two-way street.
identify with them and internalize their beliefs,  Top Management values, and assumptions.
Establish norms of behavior. 16 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Creating and Sustaining Types of Culture Culture (4 of 6) noiat Clan Culture Entrepreneurial Culture ent Flexible ri O l ro ntoC Stable al Bureaucratic Market Culture rm Culture Fo Internal External Forms of Attention 18 19
Influencing an Organizational Culture How Culture is Transmitted to (1 of 5) Employees
 How can management create a more ethical culture?  Stories  Be a visible role model.  Rituals  Material Symbols
 Communicate ethical expectations.  Language  Provide ethics training.
 Visibly reward ethical acts and punish unethical ones.
 Provide protective mechanisms. 20 21
Influencing an Organizational Culture
Influencing an Organizational Culture (3 of 5) (2 of 5) What Is Spirituality?
There is a trend today for organizations to attempt
to create a positive organizational culture:
 Workplace spirituality is not about organized religious practices.
 Emphasizes building on employee strengths.
 It is not about God or theology.
 Rewards more than it punishes.
 Workplace spirituality recognizes that people
 Emphasizes individual vitality growth.
have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished
by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community. 22 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4
Influencing an Organizational Culture (5 of 5)
Identify Characteristics of a Spiritual Culture (1 of 2)
Characteristics of a Spiritual Organization
Achieving a Spiritual Organization
 Cultural characteristics present in spiritual organizations include:
Leaders can demonstrate values, attitudes,
and behaviors that trigger intrinsic motivation Benevolence
and a sense of calling through work. Strong sense of purpose
Encouraging employees to consider how their Trust and respect
work provides a sense of purpose through
community building also can help achieve a Open-mindedness spiritual workplace. 24 25 Managing Organization Managing Organization Culture Culture
 Taking Advantage of the Existing Culture
 Teaching Organization Culture
 Easier and faster to alter employee behaviors within the
 Organizational socialization
existing culture than it is to change existing history, traditions, and values
 Is the process through which employees learn about the
firm’s culture and pass their knowledge and understanding
 Managers must be aware and understand the organization’s on to others values  Organizational mechanisms
 Managers can communicate their understanding to lower-level individuals
 Are examples of organization culture that employees see in
more experienced employees’ behaviors
 Corporate pamphlets and formal training sessions 26 27 Managing Organization Managing Organization Culture Culture
 Culture can be changed, but  Need time
 Changing the Organization Culture  Support from top managers  Managing symbols
 Substituting stories and myths that support the new cultural values for those that  Other resources support old ones
 Culture can be difficult to change when upper management inadvertently  How to make culture change reverts to old behaviors  The Stability of Change  Change people
 New values and beliefs must be seen as stable and influential as old ones
 Change corporate vision and mission
 Changing value systems requires enormous effort because value systems tend to be self-reinforcing
 Change organizational policies and
system: reward system, recruitment
and selection policies, technology… 28 29
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5
Implications for Managers (1 of 3)
How Organizational Cultures Have an Impact on Employee Performance and Satisfaction 30
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 6 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications
INSTRUCTOR: ASSOC. PROF. DR., PHAM THI BICH NGOC NEU 0 Learning Objectives
 Describe how the job characteristics model motivates
by changing the work environment.
 Compare the main ways jobs can be redesigned.
 Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can motivate employees.
 Describe how employee involvement measures can motivate employees.
 Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay
programs can increase employee motivation.
 Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators.
 Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards. 1 Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
 Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be
described through five core job dimensions:
 Skill variety – Requirements for different tasks in the job.
 Task identity – Completion of a whole piece of work.
 Task significance – The job’s impact on others.
 Autonomy – Level of discretion in decision making.
 Feedback – Amount of direct and clear information on performance.
 The way elements in a job are organized (job design)
impacts motivation, satisfaction, and performance. 2
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 The Job Characteristics Model
Employee growth-need strength moderates the relationships. 3
Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
 The core dimensions of the job characteristics model (JCM)
can be combined into a single predictive index called the
motivating potential score (MPS).
 People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are
generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
 Job dimensions operate through the psychological states
in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather
than influencing them directly.
 Evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a
set of job characteristics does generate higher and more satisfying job performance.
 While the JCM framework is supported by research, the MPS
model isn’t practical and doesn’t work wel . 4 How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?  Job Rotation
 The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another
 Systematically moving workers from one
job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and boredom  Job Enlargement
 The horizontal expansion of jobs
 Giving workers more tasks to perform  Job Enrichment
 The vertical expansion of jobs
 Giving workers a greater variety of tasks
to perform and more control over how to perform them 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2 How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?
 Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation.  Job Rotation
 Referred to as cross-training.
 Periodic shifting from one task to another.
 Strengths: reduces boredom, increases
motivation, and helps employees better
understand their work contributions.
 Weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra
time for supervisors addressing questions and
training time, and reduced efficiencies. 6 Job enrichments
 Al ow employees to plan their own work schedules.
 Al ow employees to decide how the work should be performed.
 Al ow employees to check their own work.
 Al ow employees to learn new skills. 7 Guidelines for Enriching a Job 8
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Flexible Work Arrangements  Variable Work Schedules  Compressed work schedule
 Employees work a ful forty-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days
 Flexible work schedules (flextime)
 Employees gain more personal control over the hours they work each day  Job Sharing
 Part-time employees share one full-time job  Telecommuting
 Employees spend part of their time working off-site 9 Alternative Work Arrangements Job Sharing
 Two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job. Declining in use.
Can be difficult to find compatible pairs of
employees who can successful y coordinate the intricacies of one job.
Increases flexibility and can increase
motivation and satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-
week job is just not practical. 10 Alternative Work Arrangements  Telecommuting
 Employees do their work at home at least two days a week
on a computer that is linked to their office.  The Virtual Office
 Employees work out of their home on a relatively permanent basis.
 Some wel -known organizations actively discourage
telecommuting, but for most organizations it remains popular.  Typical Telecommuting Jobs
 Professional and other knowledge-related tasks
 Routine information-handling tasks  Mobile activities 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 Employee Involvement
Employee Involvement: a participative process
that uses employees’ input to increase their
commitment to the organization’s success.
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs
 Participative management
 Representative participation 12 Employee Involvement Participative management  Joint decision making.
 Trust and confidence in leaders is essential.
 Studies of the participation-performance have yielded mixed results. 13 Employee Involvement
Representative participation
 Workers are represented by a small group of
employees who actually participate in decision making.
– Almost every country in Western Europe requires representative participation. – The two most common forms: ▪ Works councils ▪ Board representatives 14
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5 Employee Involvement and Motivation
 Early Perspectives on Employee Involvement  In the beginning:
 Employee satisfaction is a result of their participation in decision-making  Recently:
 Employees are valued human resources who can
contribute to organizational effectiveness
 Their participation is valued 15 Employee Involvement and Motivation
 Areas of Employee Involvement
 Personal job-related decisions
 Administrative matters (e.g., work schedules)  Product quality decisions
 Techniques and Issues in Employee Involvement
 Empowerment through work teams (quality circles)
 Decentralization of decision-making and increased delegation 16 Empowerment  Empowering others by:
 Articulating a clear vision and goals  Providing support
 Providing necessary resources  Providing good information 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 6 Requirements for Effective Empowerment  An organization must be:
 Sincere in its efforts to spread power and autonomy to
lower levels of the organization
 Committed to maintaining participation and empowerment
 Systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers
 Prepared to increase its commitment to training 18 Delegation
 Delegation is the process of assigning tasks and granting
sufficient authority for their accomplishment.
 Delegation is a process where a manager:
 Determines the results expected
 Al ocates duties to subordinates
 Grants them authority to enable those duties to be carried out
 Holds them responsible for the completion of the work and achievement results.
The ultimate accountability for the task remains with the manager. 19 Problems of Delegation
 Managers are reluctant to delegate because of:  Low confidence and trust
 The burden of accountability for the mistakes of subordinates
 Poor control and communication system
 Lack of understanding of what delegation involves
 Lack of training and development of managers in delegation skil s  Fear of losing power 20
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 7 Variable-Pay Programs What to Pay:
 Complex process that entails balancing internal
equity and external equity.
 Some organizations prefer to pay leaders by paying above market.
 Paying more may net better-qualified and more
highly motivated employees who may stay with the firm longer. 21 Variable-Pay Programs How to Pay:
 Variable pay programs: Piece-rate plans Merit-based pay Bonuses Profit sharing
Employee stock ownership plans
 Earnings therefore fluctuate up and down. 22 Variable-Pay Programs Piece-Rate Pay
 A pure piece-rate plan provides no base salary and
pays the employee only for what he or she produces.
 Limitation: not a feasible approach for many jobs.
 The main concern for both individual and team
piece-rate workers is financial risk. 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 8 Variable-Pay Programs Merit-Based Pay
 Al ows employers to differentiate pay based on performance.
 Creates perceptions of relationships between performance and rewards.  Limitations:
Based on annual performance appraisals. Merit pool fluctuates. Union resistance. 24 Variable-Pay Programs Bonuses
 An annual bonus is a significant component of
total compensation for many jobs.
 Increasingly include lower-ranking employees.
Many companies now routinely reward
production employees with bonuses when profits improve.
 Downside: employees’ pay is more vulnerable to cuts. 25 Variable-Pay Programs Profit-Sharing Plans
 Organization-wide programs that distribute
compensation based on some established formula
centered around a company’s profitability.
 Appear to have positive effects on employee
attitudes at the organizational level.
 Employees have a feeling of psychological ownership. 26
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 9 Variable-Pay Programs
Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP)
 A company-established benefit plan in which
employees acquire stock, often at below-market
prices, as part of their benefits.
 Increases employee satisfaction and innovation.
Employees need to psychologically experience ownership.
 Can reduce unethical behavior. 27 Variable-Pay Programs Evaluation of Variable Pay
 Do variable-pay programs increase motivation and productivity?
▪ Generally, yes, but that doesn’t mean
everyone is equally motivated by them. 28 Show How Flexible Benefits Turn Benefits Into Motivators
Developing a Benefits Package
 Flexible benefits individualize rewards.
– Al ow each employee to choose the
compensation package that best satisfies his or
her current needs and situation.
▪ Today, almost all major corporations in the
United States offer flexible benefits.
▪ However, it may be surprising that their usage is not yet global. 29
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 10 Identify the Motivational Benefits of Intrinsic Rewards
Employee Recognition Programs
 Organizations are increasingly recognizing that
important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic.
 Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee
recognition programs and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. 30
Implications for Managers (1 of 3)
Recognize individual differences.
 Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee.
 Design jobs to align with individual needs and
maximize their motivation potential. Use goals and feedback.
 You should give employees firm, specific goals,
and they should get feedback on how well
they are faring in pursuit of those goals. 31
Implications for Managers (2 of 3)
Al ow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.
 Employees can contribute to setting work goals,
choosing their own benefits packages, and
solving productivity and quality problems.
Link rewards to performance.
 Rewards should be contingent on performance,
and employees must perceive the link between the two. 32
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 11
Implications for Managers (3 of 3)
Check the system for equity.
 Employees should perceive that experience,
skil s, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs
explain differences in performance and hence in
pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards. 33 Special Issues in Motivation  Motivating Professionals
 Provide challenging projects.
 Allow them the autonomy to be productive.
 Reward with educational opportunities.  Reward with recognition.
 Express interest in what they are doing.
 Create alternative career paths. 34 Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
 Motivating the Diversified Workforce
 Provide flexible work, leave, and pay schedules.
 Provide child and elder care benefits.
 Structure working relationships to account for cultural differences and similarities.
 Motivating Low-Skil ed Service Workers  Recruit widely.  Increase pay and benefits.  Make jobs more appealing. 35
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 12 Special Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
 Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks
 Recruit and select employees that fit the job.
 Create a pleasant work environment.
 Motivating Contingent Workers
 Provide opportunity for permanent status.
 Provide opportunities for training.  Provide equitable pay. 36
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 13 Motivation Concepts
Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pham Thi Bich Ngoc NEU 0 Learning Objectives
 Describe the three key elements of motivation.
 Compare the early theories of motivation.
 Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and goal-setting theory.
 Demonstrate the differences among self-efficacy
theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory.
 Identify the implications of employee job engagement for managers.
 Describe how the contemporary theories of
motivation complement one another. 1 Defining Motivation
 Motivation is the processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of
effort toward attaining a goal.
 The level of motivation varies both between
individuals and within individuals at different times. Three key elements:  Intensity  Direction  Persistence 2
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 1 Motivation framework 3 Need-based Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do
form the basis for contemporary theories and are
still used by practicing managers.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClel and’s Theory of Needs 4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is
substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Assumptions Self-Actualization  Higher Order Individuals Esteem cannot move to Internal the next higher Social level until all needs at the Safety Lower Order current (lower) level are satisfied External Physiological  Must move in hierarchical order 5
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 2
 Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition,
particularly among practicing managers.
 It is intuitively logical and easy to understand
and some research has validated it.
 However, most research does, especially when
the theory is applied to diverse cultures. 6 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene Factors Motivators Company Extrinsic and Growth Intrinsic and Policies Related to Related to Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Salary Responsibility Work Achievement Conditions 7 Compare the Early Theories of Motivation
Contrasting View of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction 8
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two separate dimensions:
 Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
 Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction
 Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment once hygiene factors are addressed 9
Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory
➢ Limited because it relies on self-reports.
➢ Reliability of methodology is questioned.
➢ No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. 10 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research. Three groups of core needs:
 Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
 Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
 Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
Removed the hierarchical assumption
 Can be motivated by al three at once 11
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 4 McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed  Need for Power (nPow)
 The need to make others behave in a way that they
would not have behaved otherwise
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
 People have varying levels of each of the three needs.  Hard to measure 12 Performance Predictions for High nAch
 People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
 Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance
of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
 Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of
personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
 Not necessarily make good managers – too
personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
 Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success
 Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory 13
Parallels among the Need theories of Motivation Motivation Factors Achievement Self-actualization Need for Work itself Needs Achievement Responsibility Growth Needs Advancement Self-Esteem Need for power Recognition Respect of others Hygience Factors Social Supervision Relatedness Needs
Interpersonal relationship Needs Need for Job security Affiliation Security Company Policies Existence Needs Pay Physiological Needs Working Conditions 14
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 5
Process-based and Contemporary Theories of Motivation  Self-determination theory  Goal-Setting Theory  Self-Efficacy Theory  Equity Theory  Reinforcement Theory  Expectancy Theory 15 Self-Determination Theory
 People prefer to feel they have control over their actions.
 People paid for work feel less like they want
to do it and more like they have to it.
 Proposes that in addition to being driven by a
need for autonomy, people seek ways to
achieve competence and positive connections to others. 16 Self-Determination Theory
 When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance,
employees feel they are doing a good job.
 Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards
can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances. 17
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 6 Self-Determination Theory
 What does self-determination theory suggest for providing rewards?
 Self-concordance: considers how strongly people’s reasons for
pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. 18 Goal-Setting Theory  Goal-Setting Theory
 Goals tell an employee what needs to be
done and how much effort is needed.  Evidence suggests:
 Specific goals increase performance.
 Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
performance than do easy goals.
 Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback. 19 Goal-Setting Theory
 Three other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship:  Goal commitment  Task characteristics  National culture 20
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 7 Goal-Setting Theory
 People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and behaviors.
 Those with a promotion focus strive for
advancement and accomplishment and
approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.
 Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties
and obligations and avoid conditions that pul them away from desired goals. 21 Goal Setting and Motivation  Basic Premise:
 That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated
feedback, lead to higher performance
 Purposes of Setting Goals in Organizations
 To provide a useful framework for managing
motivation to enhance employee performance
 To serve management as a control device for
monitoring of how well the organization is performing  Self-Efficacy
 The extent to which we believe we can accomplish
our goals even if we failed to do so in the past 22 Expanded Goal Setting Theory  The Goal-Setting Process
 Goal-directed effort is a function of goal attributes: 1.
Goal difficulty: The extent to which a goal is chal enging, requires effort, and is attainable  Difficult Goals:  Focus and direct attention
 Energize the person to work harder
 Difficulty increases persistence
 Force people to be more effective and efficient
2. Goal specificity: The clarity and precision of a goal
3. Goal acceptance: the extent to which a person accepts a goal as his/her own
4. Goal commitment: the extent to which a person is interested in reaching a goal 23
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 8
Source: Reprinted from ORGANIZATIONAL DYNAMICS, Autumn
1979, Gary P. Latham et al., "The Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation",
Copyright 1979, with permission from Elsevier. 24 Broader Perspectives on Goal Setting
 Management by Objectives (MBO)
 A collaborative goal-setting process through which
organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization
 Requires customizing to each organization
 Can be effective for managing reward systems where the
manager has individual interactions with each employee 25 Self-Efficacy Theory
 An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
 Higher efficacy is related to:  Greater confidence
 Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
 Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
 Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory. 26
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 9 Increasing Self-Efficacy  Enactive mastery
 Most important source of efficacy
 Gaining relevant experience with task or job
 “Practice makes perfect”  Vicarious modeling
 Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
 Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself  Verbal persuasion
 Motivation through verbal conviction
 Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies  Arousal
 Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
 Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task 27 Self-Efficacy Theory
Joint Effects of Goals and Self-Efficacy on Performance
Source: Based on E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful
Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey,” American
Psychologist (September 2002): 705–17. 28 Self-Efficacy Theory
 Implications of self-efficacy theory:
 The best way for a manager to use verbal
persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect.
A form of self-fulfil ing prophecy – believing in something can make it true.
 Training programs often make use of enactive
mastery by having people practice and build their skil s. 29
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 10 Reinforcement Theory
 Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its consequences.
 Reinforcement conditions behavior.
 Behavior is environmentally caused.
 Goal setting is a cognitive approach: an individual’s
purposes direct his or her action.
 Operant conditioning theory: people learn to behave to get
something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.
 B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism. 30 Reinforcement Theory
 focuses on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.
 Behavior is environmental y caused
 Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important
 Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
 Behavior is control ed by its consequences – reinforcers
 Behavior is a function of its consequences
 Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior
 Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior
 Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause 31 Equity Theory 32
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 11 Equity Theory
 When employees perceive an inequity, they can be
predicted to make one of six choices:  Change their inputs.  Change their outcomes.
 Distort perceptions of self.
 Distort perceptions of others.
 Choose a different referent.  Leave the field. 33 Equity Theory
Model of Organizational Justice 34 Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy theory: a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on an expectation that the act wil be fol owed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.  Three relationships:
 Effort-performance relationship
 Performance-reward relationship
 Rewards-personal goals relationship 35
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 12 Expectancy Theory 36 Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t
motivated and do only the minimum.
 Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if
their motivation is to be maximized:
 If I give maximum effort, wil it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
 If I get a good performance appraisal, wil it lead to organizational rewards?
 If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me? 37 Expectancy Relationships (Linkages)  Effort–performance
 The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance results  Performance–reward
 The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the
attainment of a desired outcome  Attractiveness
 The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward
that can be achieved on the job. 38
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 13 Expectancy Theory
Factor influence Effort-Performance:
 Level of expectancy: belief/perception that one’s effort
wil result attainment of desired performance goals.
 Factors affecting expectancy perception:  self-efficacy  Goal difficulty 39 Expectancy Theory
Factor influence Performance-Reward:
 Instrumentality: Motivation depend on the perceived
effective relationship between given input and the expected outcome.
 Factor influence the individual’s instrumentality perception:  Trust  Control:  Policies 40 Expectancy Theory
Factor influence Reward-Personal Goal:
 Valence: value placed on outcomes (intrinsic and
extrinsic). It is a function of individual’s needs, goals, values and source of motivation
 Factors influencing valence for outcome:  Values  Needs  Goals  Preferences 41
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 14
Implications for managers of Expectancy Theory
Managers should give attention to a number of factors: 
Use rewards appropriate in terms of individual performance
 Attempt to establish clear relationships between effort- performance and rewards
 Establish clear procedures for the evaluation of individual levels of performance 42 43
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved. 15

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