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Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com) lOMoAR cPSD| 47886956 18 H ISTO RY King Alfred
The medieval period (1066-1458)
King Alfred was not only an able
Th e su ccessfu l N orm an in vasion o f En glan d (1066) b r ou gh t Britain in to th e m
warrior but also a dedicated scholar
ain stream o f w estern Eu ropean cu ltu re. Previously, m ost lin k s h ad been w ith Scan
(the only English monarch for a long
time afterwards who was able to read
din avia. O n ly in Scotlan d d id th is lin k survive, th e w estern isles (u n til th e 13th
and write) and a wise ruler. He is known
cen tury) an d th e n orth ern islan d s (u n til th e fifteen th cen tury) rem ain in g u n d
as ‘Alfred the Great’ - the only monarch
er th e con trol o f Scan d in avian kin gs. T h rou gh ou t th is period , th e En glish kin
in English history to be given this title.
gs also ow n ed lan d on th e con tin en t an d were often at w ar w ith th e Fren ch kin
He is also popularly known for the story gs.
o f the burning o f the cakes.
Unlike th e Germ an ic in vasion s, th e N orm an in vasion w as sm all-scale.
While he was wandering around his
country organizing resistance to the
Th ere w as n o such th in g as a N orm an area o f settlem en t. In stead, th e N orm an
Danish invaders, Alfred travel ed in
soldiers w ho h ad in vaded were given th e ow n ersh ip o f lan d - an d o f th e people
disguise. On one occasion, he stopped
livin g on it. A strict feudal system w as im posed. Great n obles, or baron s, were respon
at a wom an’s house. The woman asked
sible directly to th e kin g; lesser lords, each ow n in g a village, were directly respon sible
him to watch some cakes that were
to a baron . Un der th em were th e peasan ts, tied by a strict system o f m u tu al duties
cooking to see that they did not burn,
an d obligation s to th e local lord, an d forbidden to travel w ith ou t his perm ission . Th
while she went off to get food. Alfred
became lost in thought and the cakes
e peasan ts were th e En glish -speakin g Saxon s. Th e lords an d th e baron s were th e
burned. When the woman returned,
Fren ch -speakin g N orm an s. Th is w as th e start o f the En glish class system ( Language
she shouted angrily at Alfred and sent and social class ).
him away. Alfred never told her that he was her king.
Th e system o f stron g govern m en t w h ich th e N orm an s in trodu ced m ade th e A
n glo-N orm an k in gd om th e m ost pow erful political force in Britain an d Irelan d. N 1066
ot su rprisin gly th erefore, th e au th ority o f th e En glish m on arch grad u ally exten
This is the most famous date in English
ded to oth er p arts o f th ese islan d s in th e n ext 250 years. By th e en d o f th e th irteen
history. On 14 October of that year, an
th cen tury, a large p art o f eastern Irelan d w as con trolled by An glo-N orm an lords invading army from Normandy
in th e n am e o f th eir k in g an d th e w h ole o f W ales w as u n der h is direct rule (at
defeated the English at the Battle o f
w h ich tim e, th e cu stom o f n am in g th e m on arch 's eldest son th e 'Prin ce o f W
Hastings. The battle was close and
ales’ began ). Scotlan d m an aged to rem ain politically in depen den t in th e m edieval
extremely bloody. At the end o f it,
most o f the best warriors in England
period, b u t w as obliged to figh t occasion al w ars to do so.
were dead, including their leader, King
Th e cultural story o f th is period is different. In the 250 years after th e N orm an Con
Harold. On Christmas day that year, the
Norman leader, Duke Wil iam of
qu est, it w as a Germ an ic lan guage, M iddle En glish , an d n ot th e N orm an (French
Normandy, was crowned king o f
) lan gu age, w hich h ad becom e the d om in an t on e in all classes o f society in En glan
England. He is known in popular history
d. Furth erm ore, it was th e An glo-Saxon con cept o f com m on law, an d n ot Rom an
as ‘Wil iam the Conqueror’ and the date
law, w hich form ed th e basis o f th e legal system .
is remembered as the last time that
England was successfully invaded. The murder o f Thom as
*t ^ 7 'i The Norman baron 1066 The Battle o f Hastings.
1170 Becket, the Archbishop o f JL JL / -L known as Strongbow
Canterbury, by soldiers o f King Henry II. and his fol owers settle in Ireland. Becket becomes a
O X" King W il iam ’s l U O O
popular martyr and his grave is visited by pilgrims for hundreds o f years. The Canterbury Tales,
officials complete the Domesday Book, a
written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the fourteenth century, recounts the stones told by a fictional
very detailed, vil age-by-vil age record o f
group o f pilgrims on their way to Canterbury.
the people and their possessions throughout his kingdom. Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com)
Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com) lOMoAR cPSD| 47886956 2 0 H ISTO RY Th e W ars o f the Roses
t a th ird o f th e p op u lation o f Great Britain . It periodically reappeared for an oth er
300 years. Th e sh ortage o f lab ou r w h ich it cau sed, an d th e in creasin g im portan ce
During the fifteenth century, the power
o f trade an d tow n s, w eaken ed th e trad ition al ties betw een lord an d peasan t. At a
of the greatest nobles, who had their
own private armies, meant that
h igh er level o f feu dal stru ctu re, th e pow er o f th e great baron s w as greatly w eaken
constant challenges to the position o f
ed by in -figh tin g (The W ars o f the Roses).
the monarch were possible. These
power struggles came to a head in the
Both th ese developm en ts allow ed En glish m on arch s to in crease th eir power. Th e
Wars o f the Roses, in which the nobles
Tu dor dyn asty (1485-1603) establish ed a system o f govern m en t departm en ts staffed
were divided into two groups, one
by profession als w ho depen ded for th eir position on th e m on arch . Th e feudal
supporting the House of Lancaster,
aristocracy w as n o lon ger n eeded for im plem en tin g govern m en t policy. It w as n
whose symbol was a red rose, the other
the House o f York, whose symbol was
eeded less for making it too. O f th e tradition al two 'H ou ses’ o f Parliam en t, th e
a white rose. Three decades o f almost
Lords an d th e Com m on s, it w as now m ore im portan t for m on arch s to get th e
continual war ended in 1485, when
agreem en t o f the Com m on s for th eir policies because th at w as where th e newly
Henry Tudor (Lancastrian) defeated and
pow erful m erch an ts an d lan dow n ers were represen ted.
kil ed Richard III (Yorkist) at the Battle o f Bosworth Field.
Unlike in m uch o f th e rest o f Europe, th e im m ediate cause o f th e rise o f P rotestan
tism in En glan d w as political an d person al rath er th an doctrin al. Th e Kin g (H enry O ff w ith his h ead !
VIII) w an ted a divorce, w h ich th e Pope w ould n ot give h im . Also, by m ak in g h
im self h ead o f th e 'Ch urch o f En glan d’, in depen den t o f Rom e, all ch urch lan ds
Being an important person in the
cam e u n der h is con trol an d gave h im a large new source o f in com e.
sixteenth century was not a safe
position. The Tudor monarchs were
Th is rejection o f th e Rom an Ch urch also accorded w ith a new spirit o f patriotic
disloyal to their officials and merciless
con fiden ce in En glan d. Th e coun try h ad finally lost any realistic claim to lan ds in
to any nobles who opposed them.
Fran ce, th u s becom in g m ore con sciou sly a distin ct 'islan d n ation ’. At th e sam
More than half o f the most famous
names o f the period finished their lives
e tim e, in creasin g Eu ropean exploration o f th e Am ericas m ean t th at En glan d w
by being executed. Few people who
as closer to th e geograph ical cen tre o f w estern civilization in stead o f bein g, as
were taken through Traitor’s Gate (see
previously, on th e edge o f it. It w as in th e last qu arter o f th is adven turous an d
below) in the Tower o f London came
optim istic cen tury th at Sh akespeare began w ritin g h is fam ou s plays, givin g voice out again alive.
to th e m odern form o f En glish . Th e sixteen th cen tu ry
It w as th erefore patriotism as m uch as religious con viction th at h ad cau sed P
In its first ou tb reak in th e m iddle
rotestan tism to becom e th e m ajority religion in En glan d by th e en d o f th e cen
o f th e fou rteen th cen tury, bu
tury. It took a form kn ow n as An glican ism , n ot so very differen t from Cath olicism
bon ic plagu e (kn ow n in En glan
in its organ ization an d ritual. Bu t in
d as th e Black D eath ) killed ab ou
•i £ * ' 2 / \ The Act o f Supremacy
Latin bibles in the Pope and forbids the Latin mass.
■" declares Henry VIII to be every church in the land.
the supreme head o f the church in England. Sir Francis Drake
1580 completes the first voyage The administration o f 1536
round the world by an Englishman. government and law in
Wales is reformed so that it is exactly the same as it is in England. 1 C ^ Q An English *t £ The Scottish parliam ent
JL %D k J O language version o f JL \ J
abolishes the authority of the Bible replaces Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com)
Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com) Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com)
Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com) Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com) lOMoAR cPSD| 47886956 2 4 H ISTO RY Th e eigh teen th cen tu ry
In 1707, th e Act o f Un ion w as passed. Un der th is agreem en t, th e Scottish parliam
en t w as dissolved an d som e o f its m em bers join ed th e En glish an d W elsh parliam
en t in Lon don an d th e form er two kin gdom s becam e on e ‘Un ited Kin gdom o f
Great Britain ’. However, Scotlan d retain ed its own system o f law, m ore sim ilar to
con tin en tal Eu ropean system s th an th at o f En glan d’s. It does so to th is day.
Politically, th e eigh teen th cen tury w as stable. M on arch an d P arliam en t got on
quite well togeth er. O n e reason for th is was th at th e m on arch ’s favourite politician
s, th rou gh th e royal pow er o f patron age (the ability to give people job s), were able
to con trol th e election an d votin g h abits o f a large n u m ber o f M Ps in th e H ouse o f Com m on s.
W ith in Parliam en t, th e bitter division s o f th e previous cen tury were ech oed in th
e form ation o f w o vaguely opposed, loose collection s o f allies. O n e grou p, th e W h
igs, were the political ‘d escen dan ts’ o f th e parliam en tarian s. Th ey su p p orted th e
P rotestan t values o f h ard w ork an d th rift, were sym path etic to dissen ters an d
believed in govern m en t by m on arch an d aristocracy together. Th e oth er group, th e Tories, h ad a
The o rig ins of m odern greater respect for th e idea o f th e m on arch y an d th e im portan ce o f the g o vernm ent An glican Ch urch
(an d som etim es even a little sym path y for Cath olics
an d th e Stuarts). Th is was th e begin n in g o f th e party system in Britain.
The monarchs o f the eighteenth
century were Hanoverian Th e on ly part o f Britain to ch an ge radically as a result o f political Germans with interests on the
forces in th is cen tury w as th e h igh lan ds o f Scotlan d. Th is area twice
European continent. The first su p p orted failed attem pts to p u t a (Cath olic) Stu art m on arch back o f them, George I, could not
even speak English. Perhaps this on th e th ron e. After th e secon d attem pt, m an y in h abitan ts o f the situation encouraged the habit h
igh lan ds were killed or sen t away from Britain an d th e w earin g o f whereby the monarch appointed h igh lan d dress (the tartan kilt)
w as ban n ed. Th e Celtic way o f life was one principal, o r‘prime’, minister effectively destroyed. from the ranks o f Parliament
to head his government. It was It was cultural ch an ge th at was m ost m arked in th is century. Britain also during this century that gradually
acquired an em pire in th e Am ericas, alon g th e west African
the system o f an annual budget coast an d in India. Th e greatly in creased trade th at th is allow ed was one drawn up by the monarch’s
Treasury officials for the approval factor w hich led to the In dustrial Revolution . O th er factors were th e o f Parliament was established.
m an y tech n ical in n ovation s in m an ufacture an d tran sport.
The Act of Union is passed. A At the battle 1-7 S ' The English writer 1707 JL / ^ r O ofCulloden, a -L / Samuel Johnson coins
government army o f English and
the famous phrase, ‘When a man is
The last occasion on which lowland Scots defeat the highland
tired o f London, he is tired o f life’.
1708 a British monarch refuses army o f Charles Edward, who, as
to accept a bil passed by Parliament. grandson o f the last Stuart king, For the first time,
claimed the British throne. Although 1771 Parliament allows he made no attempt
to protect his written records o f its debates to be supporters from revenge attacks published
freely. romantic legend in the highlands, and 1782 James Watt invents the
afterwards, he is stil a popular
is known as ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’. first steam engine.
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a w ar o f in depen den ce. At th e start o f the century, it was locked in a w ar w ith Fran
ce, d u rin g w hich an in vasion o f th e cou n try w as a real possibility. Soon after th e
Queen Victoria reigned from 1837-
en d o f th e century, it con trolled th e biggest em pire th e w orld h ad ever seen.
1901. During her reign, although the
modern powerlessness o f the monarch O
n e section o f th is em pire was Irelan d. D u rin g th is century, it w as in fact
was confirmed (she was sometimes
forced to accept as Prime M inister
part o f th e UK itself, an d it w as d u rin g th is cen tury th at British culture an d way o
people whom she personally disliked),
f life cam e to predom in ate in Irelan d. In th e 1840s, th e potato crop failed two years in
she herself became an increasingly
a row an d th ere w as a terrible fam in e. M illion s o f peasan ts, th ose w ith Gaelic lan
popular symbol o f Britain’s success in
gu age an d cu stom s, eith er died or em igrated. By th e en d o f th e century, alm ost th
the world. As a hard-working, religious
e w hole o f th e rem ain in g popu lation h ad sw itch ed to En glish as th eir first lan
mother often children, devoted to her guage.
husband, Prince Albert, she was
regarded as the personification o f
An oth er p art o f th e em pire w as m ade up o f Can ada, Australia, an d New Zealan d,
contemporary morals. The idea that the
monarch should set an example to the
where British settlers h ad becom e th e m ajority popu lation . An oth er w as In dia, an
people in such matters was unknown
en orm ou s cou n try w ith a culture m ore an cien t th an Britain ’s. Ten s o f th ou san d
before this time and has created
s o f British civil servan ts an d troops were u sed to govern it. At the h ead o f th is ad m
problems for the monarchy since then
in istration w as a viceroy (govern or) w h ose position w ith in the cou n try w as sim ilar (see chapter 7).
to th e m on arch ’s in Britain itself. Because In dia w as so far away, an d th e jou rn ey
from Britain took so lon g, th ese British officials spen t m ost o f th eir w orkin g lives th
ere an d so developed a distin ct way o f life. Th e m ajority, however, rem ain ed self-con
sciously ‘British ’ as they im posed British in stitu tion s an d m eth ods o f govern m en t
on th e country. Large parts o f Africa also belon ged to th e em pire. Except for Sou th
Africa, where th ere w as som e British settlem en t, m ost o f Britain ’s African colon ies
started as tradin g bases on th e coast, an d were on ly in corporated in to th e em pire at
th e en d o f th e century. As well as th ese areas, th e em pire in cluded n u m erou s sm
aller areas an d islan ds. Som e, such as th ose in the Caribbean , were th e result o f earlier
British settlem en t, b u t m ost were in cluded because o f th eir strategic position alon g tradin g routes.
Th e grow th o f th e em pire w as en couraged by a ch an ge in attitu de d u rin g
the century. Previously, colon ization h ad been a m atter o f settlem en t, com m
erce, or m ilitary strategy. Th e aim w as sim ply to Q The first law regulating - L t J factory working
conditions limits the number o f hours that children are allowed to work.
-| Q / ^ O TheTUC (Trades Union "i Q The first socialist, Keir -L O O Congress) is formed. JL
O Hardie, is elected to
Slavery is made il egal throughout the
Parliament. He enters the House of British Empire.
•i Q Q f After much debate, an
Commons for the first time wearing a Th e n in eteen th cen tu
JL O O t/ atheist is allowed to sit cloth cap (which remained a symbol of in the House o f ry
Commons. the British working man until the 1960s) N
ot lon g before th is cen tury
began , Britain lost its m ost im portan
t colon ies (n orth Am erican on es) in
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T H E N IN ET EEN TH CEN TURY 2 7
possess territory, b u t n ot n ecessarily to govern it. By th e en d o f the century, colon
Here are some lines from the poem
ization w as seen as a m atter o f destin y. D u rin g th e century, Britain becam e th e w
o f this title by Rudyard Kipling
(1865-1 936), who is sometimes
orld’s forem ost econ om ic power. Th is, togeth er w ith lon g years o f political stability
referred to (perhaps unfairly) as ‘the
u n equ alled anywhere else in Europe, gave th e British a sen se o f suprem e con fiden poet of imperialism’.
ce, even arrogan ce, ab ou t th eir culture an d civilization . Th e British cam e to see th
em selves as h avin g a duty to spread th is culture an d civilization arou n d th e w orld.
Take up the White Man’s burden —
Send forth the besty e breed -
Bein g th e rulers o f an em pire w as th erefore a m atter o f m oral obligation (The White
Go, bindy our sons to exile Man’s Burden).
To serve tour captives’ need;
Th ere were great ch an ges in social structure. M ost people now lived in tow n s an d
To wait in heavy harness
On fluttered folk and wild -
cities. Th ey n o lon ger depen ded on cou n try lan dow n ers for th eir livinOg b u t rath
Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
er on th e ow ners o f in dustries. Th ese ow ners an d th e grow in g m iddle class o f
Half-devil and half-child.
tradespeople an d profession als h eld th e real pow er in the cou n try Alon g w ith th eir
Other races, the poem says, are ‘wild’
pow er w ent a set o f values w hich em ph asized h ard w ork, th rift, religious observan
and have a ‘need’ to be civilized. The
ce, the fam ily, an aw aren ess o f on e’s duty, absolu te h on esty in pu blic life, an d
white man’s noble duty is to ‘serve’ in
extrem e respectability in sexual m atters. Th is is the set o f values w hich are n ow called
this role. This is not a quest for mere Victorian .
power. The duty is bestowed by God,
whom Kipling invokes in another
M iddle-class religious con viction , togeth er w ith a belief th at reform w as better th poem
an revolution , allow ed reform s in pu blic life. Th ese in clu ded n ot only political
(Recessional) in a reference to the
reform s, b u t also reform s w hich recogn ized som e h u m an righ ts (as we now call
British empire in tropical lands: th em ). Slavery an d the
Cod ofo ur fathers, known ofo ld,
law s again st people on th e basis o f religion were abolish ed, an d laws were m ade to
Lord ofo ur far-flung battle-line,
protect w orkers from som e o f th e w orst excesses o f th e in du strial m ode o f produ
Beneath whose awful hand we hold
ction . Public services such as th e p ost an d th e police were begun .
Dominion over palm and pine.
D espite reform , th e n atu re o f th e new in d u strial society forced m an y people to
live an d w ork in very u n pleasan t su rrou n d in gs. W riters an d in tellectu als o f th is
p eriod eith er p rotested again st th e h orrors o f th is new style o f life (for exam ple, D
icken s) or sim ply ign ored it. M an y, especially th e Rom an tic poets, praised the beau
ties o f th e cou n tryside an d th e virtu es o f cou n try life. Th is w as a new developm
1 Q "1 / I Great Britain l y l ^ declares
en t. In previou s cen tu ries, th e cou n tryside w asn ’t som eth in g to be d iscu ssed or war on
adm ired. Bu t from th is tim e on , m ost British people developed a sen tim en tal attach
Germany, Until the 1940s, the First
World W ar was known in Britain as ‘The
m en t to th e idea o f the cou n tryside (see ch apter 5). Great W ar’.
■i Th e‘Easter Rising’ in j L - L 1 3 Ireland.
Nationwide selective 1 Q 1 1 The power o f the House J___/ v a J secondary education is
_L J _L _L o f Lords is severely introduced.
reduced and sick pay for most workers is introduced.
■1 Q Q The first old-age pensions JL W O are introduced. Th e W h ite M an ’s Burden Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com)
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TH E TW EN TIETH CEN TU RY 2 9 Th e tw en tieth cen tu ry
By the beginning of the twentieth
century, most people in Ireland wanted
Arou n d the begin n in g o f th e tw en tieth century, Britain ceased to be th e w orld’s
either internal self-government (which
rich est country. Perh aps th is cau sed a failure o f th e Victorian con fiden ce in gradu
was known as ‘home rule’) or complete
independence from Britain. Liberal
al reform . W hatever the reason , the first 20 years o f th e cen tury were a period o f
governments in Britain had attempted
extrem ism in Britain . Th e Su ffragettes, w om en dem an din g th e righ t to vote,
at various times to make this idea a
were prepared to dam age property an d even die for th eir beliefs; som e section s o f
reality. However, the one mil ion
th e arm y appeared ready to disobey the govern m en t over its policies con cern in g
Protestants in the province o f Ulster in
Ulster in Irelan d; an d th e govern m en t’s in trodu ction o f new taxation w as opposed
the north o f the country were violently
opposed to it. They did not want to
so absolutely by the H ouse o f Lords th at even Parliam en t, th e fou n d ation o f the
belong to a country dominated by
political system , seem ed to have an u n certain future. Bu t by th e 1920s, th ese issu
Catholics. They formed less than a
es h ad been resolved (alth ou gh on ly tem porarily in th e case o f Ulster) an d the rath
quarter of the total Irish population,
er u n -British clim ate o f extrem ism died out.
but in six of the nine counties o f Ulster they were in a 65 % majority.
Th e British em pire reach ed its greatest exten t in 1919. By th is tim e, however, it w as
already becom in g less o f an em pire an d m ore o f a con federation . At the sam e in tern
In 1 920, the British government
ation al conferen ce at w hich Britain acquired new possession s un der the Treaty o f
partitioned the country between the
(Catholic) south and the (Protestant) six
Versailles, Australia, Can ada, New Zealan d an d Sou th Africa were all represen ted
counties, giving each part some control
separately from Britain . A couple o f years later, Britain lost m ost o f its oldest colon y
o f its internal affairs. But this was no
(The creation of Northern Ireland).
longer enough for the south. There,
support for complete independence
Th e real d ism an tlin g o f the em pire took place in the 25 years follow in g th e Secon d
had grown as a result o f the British
W orld War. In the sam e period, it gradually becam e clear th at Britain w as n o lon ger
government’s savage repression o f the
a ‘superpow er’ in the w orld an d its forces were n o lon ger able to act un ilaterally. In
‘Easter Rising’ in 1916. War fol owed.
1956, for in stan ce, British an d Fren ch m ilitary action to stop th e Egyptian govern m
The eventual result was that in 1922,
the south became independent from
en t takin g over th e Suez can al failed becau se it did n ot receive Am erican su pport. D Britain.
u rin g th e 1950s, it h ad been gen erally u n derstood th at a con feren ce o f th e w orld’s
great pow ers involved th e USA, th e Soviet Un ion an d Britain . Bu t in 1962, th e Cu The six counties, however,
ban m issile crisis, on e o f the greatest th reats to global peace in th e tw en tieth century, remained within the United Kingdom. They became the
w as resolved w ith ou t reference to Britain . An d w hen, in 1974, th e islan d o f Cyprus,
British province o f‘Northern Ireland’
a form er British colony, w as in vaded by Turkey, British m ilitary activity w as restricted (see chapter 12).
to airliftin g the person n el o f its m ilitary base
Th e creatio n o f N o rthern Ireland
"| 0 ^ 7 ^ Britain joins the J ___/ / 1953 kJ
Coronation ofElizabeth II. 'i C \ "2 The school leaving age European Economic Community.
.1___J O J is raised to 16.
1 Q Q O The Fal klands/ _1_ J O W
-i Q C Q The Clean Air Act is the ■i Q i f Q Th e‘age o f majority’ _L „ / s J O first law ofwidespread
M alvinas War (see chapter 12).
J . / D O (the age at which application to attempt to control somebody legally becomes an adult) is pol ution. reduced from 21 to 18.
Life Peerage Act (see chapter 9). ■"I S ' British troops are sent - L J U to Northern Ireland
■i Q ^ The first motorway is (see chapter 1 2). l y O y opened.
Capital punishment is abolished. ■1 Decimal currency
JL _/ / JL is introduced (see chapter 1 5). Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com)
Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com) Downloaded by Tr?n Lanh (tranlanh1406@gmail.com)