Chapter 3 Organizing for Advertising & Promotion in IMC | Môn Truyền thông Marketing tích hợp - Đại học Kinh Tế Quốc Dân

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Chapter 3: Organizing for Advertising and Promotion: The Role of Ad
Agencies and Other Marketing Communication Organizations
Before discussing the specifics of the industry, we’ll provide an overview of the entire system and
identify some of the players. As shown in Figure 3–1, participants in the integrated marketing
communications process can be divided into five major groups: the advertiser (or client), advertising
agencies, media organizations, specialized communication services, and collateral services. Each group
has specific roles in the promotional process.
Advertisers, or clients, are the main participants in the integrated marketing communications
(IMC) process. They own the products or services and fund the IMC programs. Advertisers are
responsible for developing marketing plans and making final decisions on advertising and
promotions. While some organizations handle these tasks internally, many rely on advertising
agencies that specialize in creating and placing communications. Agencies of record (AORs)
manage most IMC services for a company, but larger companies may have multiple AORs for different brands.
Media organizations play a crucial role by providing an environment for marketing messages,
aiming to attract consumers. They must have engaging content to encourage advertisers to
buy ad space. Specialized marketing communication services include direct-marketing
agencies, sales promotion agencies, digital agencies, and public relations firms, each focusing on their areas of expertise. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Finally, collateral services support the advertising and promotional functions, helping with
planning and execution. Each participant has a defined role that contributes to the overall marketing process.
3.1 ORGANIZING FOR ADVERTISING AND PROMOTION IN THE FIRM: THE CLIENT’S ROLE
Almost every business utilizes marketing communication, but the organization of these efforts
varies based on factors like company size, product range, advertising budget, and marketing
structure. Marketing personnel play a key role in decision-making, providing input on
campaign plans and media strategies. Top management is also involved in advertising
decisions, reflecting the firm's overall marketing strategy.
Direct responsibility for managing advertising typically lies with an advertising department
headed by a manager. Companies may adopt different structures: a centralized system, a
decentralized brand management system, or in-house agencies ( hệ thống tập trung, hệ thống
quản lý thương hiệu phân tán hoặc các cơ quan nội bộ). In a centralized system, the advertising
manager oversees all promotional activities, coordinating with various departments and outside agencies.
The manager's duties include organizing the department, supervising execution, and ensuring
effective communication with marketing research and sales. Centralized systems are common
in companies with fewer divisions, facilitating communication and efficient operations.
However, they can lead to challenges, such as a lack of responsiveness to specific product
needs and difficulties in understanding overall marketing strategies as companies grow.
3.2 THE CENTRALIZED SYSTEM
Marketing activities are often organized by function, with advertising linked to sales and
research. The advertising manager oversees promotions, including budgeting and media
planning. Key responsibilities include organizing the department, supervising execution, and
coordinating with other departments and outside agencies. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Centralized systems are common in companies with fewer divisions (bộ phận), facilitating
communication and decision-making (giúp tăng cường giao tiếp và ra quyết định). However,
challenges include slow responses to specific product needs and difficulties in understanding
overall marketing strategies as companies grow.
The Decentralized System
In large corporations with multiple divisions and diverse products, managing advertising and
promotional functions through a centralized department can be challenging. Instead, these
companies adopt a decentralized system, where brand managers are assigned to each product
or brand, responsible for planning, budgeting, and overall brand management. Companies like
Procter & Gamble and Unilever exemplify this approach.
Brand managers collaborate closely with outside advertising agencies to develop promotional
programs. Each brand may have its own agency and compete internally against other brands.
The advertising department supports brand managers by assisting in planning and
coordinating integrated marketing communications.
Some companies implement a category management system, where category managers
oversee related groups of products, allowing for strategic coordination among brand
managers. This system can enhance profitability and market share, as category managers may
have the authority to influence brand advertising decisions.
The decentralized system offers advantages such as faster responses to market changes and
focused managerial attention on each brand. However, challenges include potential lack of
experience among brand managers, competition for resources leading to rivalries, and
insufficient authority to implement their plans effectively. Critics argue that brand managers
may become too focused on internal issues and not enough on external market dynamics.
Additionally, brand managers must adapt to digital marketing trends and manage brand
identity across social media platforms. They play crucial roles in developing social media
strategies and guidelines, ensuring effective engagement with consumers. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350 In-House Agencies
Many companies establish in-house advertising agencies to reduce costs and maintain greater
control over advertising activities. An in-house agency is owned and operated by the
advertiser, and while some function similarly to traditional advertising departments, others
have a distinct identity and handle significant advertising budgets. Major brands like Hyundai,
Avon, and Revlon utilize in-house agencies, sometimes in conjunction with outside agencies.
The primary benefits of in-house agencies include cost savings on media commissions and
fees, closer alignment with top management, and reduced turnover, which can strengthen
client-agency relationships. In-house teams often have better market knowledge and can
respond more quickly to advertising needs.
However, critics of in-house agencies argue that they may lack the experience and creativity
of outside agencies. Outside firms often have a broader range of specialists and can provide
diverse perspectives and strategic insights. As companies grow, they may find it challenging to
manage all advertising internally and may hire outside agencies to enhance their marketing
efforts, as seen with Under Armour's partnership with Droga5. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
3.3 ADVERTISING AGENCIES The Ad Agency’s Role
Advertising agencies play a crucial role in helping companies develop, prepare, and execute
promotional programs. While clients can perform these functions themselves, many prefer to
use external agencies for their specialized skills. Agencies employ experts in various fields,
such as artists, writers, and media analysts, providing clients with industry-specific insights and an objective perspective. Types of Advertising Agencies
Agencies range from small operations to large full-service firms that offer a comprehensive
range of marketing, communication, and promotional services. Full-service agencies include
departments for account management, creative services, media planning, and research. Account Services
Account executives act as liaisons between the agency and clients, understanding marketing
needs and coordinating agency efforts. They must possess strong marketing knowledge and
be adept at navigating the evolving advertising landscape. Marketing
Services Research has become increasingly important for agencies to
effectively communicate with target audiences. Most full-service agencies maintain research
departments that gather and analyze data to inform advertising strategies. Account planners
play a vital role in understanding consumer behavior and guiding creative strategies. Creative
Services The creative department is responsible for designing and
executing advertisements. Copywriters and art directors collaborate to develop ad concepts,
while production departments oversee the execution of these ideas. Coordination among
various teams is essential to meet deadlines and ensure quality.
Agency Structure Agencies typically use a departmental or group system to organize their
operations. The departmental system allows specialization, while the group system fosters
collaboration among different departments to service specific accounts effectively. Each
structure has its advantages, depending on client needs and agency size. Creative
Boutiques These are small agencies that focus solely on creative
services, employing writers and artists but lacking media and research capabilities. They
cater to clients who want creative input while managing other marketing functions
internally. Creative boutiques often deliver innovative work quickly, avoiding the
bureaucracy of larger firms. However, they face challenges competing with larger agencies
and may need to expand their services to attract clients seeking more comprehensive solutions. Media Specialist
Companies These agencies specialize in media buying
for television and digital advertising, responding to the complexity of fragmented media
audiences. Media buying services help clients execute their media strategies and benefit
from discounts due to bulk purchasing. The rise of programmatic buying, which automates lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
media purchasing and optimization, is transforming the industry, expanding beyond digital media to television.
Many large advertisers, including brands like Nike and Revlon, are shifting their media buying
from full-service agencies to media specialists to increase efficiency and reduce costs. These
media agencies are often part of major agency holding companies, providing a streamlined
approach to global media buying. As the media landscape evolves, advancements in
technology and data analytics will further shape media planning and buying strategies, making
media specialists increasingly relevant.
3.4 AGENCY COMPENSATION Commissions from Media
The traditional method for ad agencies to earn money is through a commission system,
typically a 15% commission on media purchases made for clients. This system has been
standard for outdoor advertising but is also used in other media types, providing a
straightforward way for agencies to earn revenue.
Appraisal of the Commission System
The commission system, while historically the primary method of agency compensation, has
faced significant criticism over time. Critics argue that it incentivizes agencies to recommend
expensive media options to maximize their commissions, even if those options aren’t the best fit for the client’s goals.
Fee, Cost, and Incentive-Based Systems
Agencies and clients have developed alternative compensation methods to address the
shortcomings of the commission system, including fee arrangements, cost-plus agreements, and incentive-based systems:
● Fee Arrangement: This involves a straightforward fee—either fixed or hourly—for the
agency’s services, agreed upon by both the agency and the client. The fee can be paid
monthly, annually, or per project, covering specific work like media planning or
creative development. This method ensures transparency, as the client knows exactly
what they’re paying for, and the agency’s compensation isn’t tied to media costs.
However, determining a fair fee requires careful assessment of the work’s scope and the agency’s costs.
● Cost-Plus Agreement: In this system, the client agrees to cover the agency’s costs (e.g.,
staff time, overhead) plus an additional percentage as profit, often around 15%. This
is frequently used alongside commissions. For example, if an agency’s costs for a
campaign are $83,300, the client pays that amount plus a profit margin, totaling
$98,300. This method requires detailed cost tracking by the agency, which can be
challenging for clients to verify, potentially leading to disputes over transparency.
● Incentive-Based Compensation (Bồi thường dựa trên khuyến khích): lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
This method ties agency compensation to performance outcomes, such as achieving
sales targets, increasing brand awareness, or meeting other measurable goals.
Incentive systems encourage agencies to align their efforts with client goals, but they
require clear, measurable objectives. For instance, if an agency helps a client exceed a
sales target, they might earn a bonus, but if they fall short, their compensation could be reduced. Percentage Charges
In addition to commissions or fees, agencies often apply a markup, typically 17.65% to 20%,
on services they outsource, such as artwork, photography, or printing. For example, if a client’s
bill for these services totals $100,000, the agency might add a 17.65% markup, increasing the
cost to $117,650. This markup, which covers 17.65% to 20% of the client’s overall bill, helps
agencies cover overhead costs and earn a profit on outsourced work. While this method
supplements other compensation, it can raise concerns about transparency if clients aren’t fully aware of the markup.
EVALUATING AGENCIES Evaluating Agencies
With significant spending on advertising and promotion, accountability for these expenditures
has become crucial. Agencies are evaluated through two main assessments: financial audits
and qualitative audits. Financial audits focus on the agency’s management of costs, expenses,
personnel hours, and payments to media and suppliers, ensuring transparency in billing.
Qualitative audits assess the agency’s effectiveness in planning, developing, and executing the
client’s advertising campaigns. Evaluations are often subjective and informal, especially for
smaller companies with limited budgets or where advertising isn’t a priority. However, larger
companies with substantial budgets emphasize formal evaluation systems. The study noted
that formal reviews are less common for digital, public relations, and multicultural agencies.
Gaining and Losing Clients
The evaluation process provides feedback to both agencies and clients, highlighting areas for
improvement in their relationship and performance. However, many successful relationships
end due to various factors. For instance, Campbell Soup ended its 1954 relationship with
BBDO in 2018 to modernize its marketing, while John Hancock ended its 32-year partnership
with Hill Holliday due to global creative shifts. The fast-food chain Jack in the Box also parted
ways with Secret Weapon Marketing after 20 years, citing its role in the chain’s growth.
Agencies often switch due to creative needs, management changes, or marketing strategy
shifts. Companies like Samsung, IBM, and Colgate consolidate their marketing efforts with one lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
agency for consistency, while others, like Procter & Gamble (P&G), reduce agency numbers—
P&G cut from 6,000 to 2,500 agencies by 2018, saving over $1 billion. Common reasons for
losing clients include poor performance, communication issues, unrealistic client demands,
personality conflicts, personnel changes, agency-client size mismatches, conflicts of interest,
shifts in marketing strategy, declining sales, compensation disagreements, policy changes, and
lack of integrated marketing capabilities.
Why Agencies Lose Clients
Agencies lose clients due to several recurring issues:
● Poor Performance or Service: Clients become dissatisfied with the quality of
advertising or agency services.
● Poor Communication: Lack of effective communication between agency and client
personnel hinders collaboration.
● Unrealistic Demands: Clients impose demands that exceed the agency’s compensation or capacity.
● Personality Conflicts: Misalignment between client and agency teams disrupts teamwork.
● Personnel Changes: New leadership at the agency or client may prefer different partners.
● Size Mismatch (Không phù hợp về quy mô): The client outgrows the agency, or the
agency becomes too large for the client’s needs.
● Conflicts of Interest: Agencies cannot manage competing accounts due to ethical or competitive concerns.
● Strategy Shifts: Changes in the client’s marketing or corporate strategy require new agency capabilities.
● Declining Sales: Poor sales performance may be attributed to advertising, prompting a switch.
● Compensation Disputes (Tranh chấp bồi thường): Disagreements over payment or
compensation models create tension.
● Policy Changes: Mergers, acquisitions, or policy shifts may lead to agency reevaluation.
● Marketing/Creative Disagreements: Conflicts over strategy or creative direction strain the relationship.
● Lack of Integrated Marketing Capabilities: Clients seek agencies with broader
expertise across IMC disciplines.
Agencies must address these issues to retain clients, as some factors are manageable
while others, like mergers or sales declines, may be beyond their control.
How Agencies Gain Clients
Agencies gain clients through referrals from existing clients, media, or other agencies, and by
maintaining strong relationships with these stakeholders. Solicitation (Việc mời chào) is lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
another common method, with smaller agencies relying on direct outreach and larger
agencies using business development teams to pitch to prospective clients. The process often
begins with a Request for Information (RFI), followed by a speculative presentation where
agencies showcase their capabilities. Despite the time and cost, many agencies participate in
these “spec” presentations, though some refuse due to the lack of guaranteed success. Public
relations, civic involvement, and industry recognition through awards (e.g., Effie Awards,
Cannes Lions) also enhance an agency’s reputation, attracting new clients. Exhibit 3-11
highlights Cashmere’s recognition as the 2019 Multicultural Agency of the Year by Advertising
Age, showcasing how awards boost visibility. Public Relations
Agencies often engage in public relations and civic activities, such as pro bono work for
charities or professional associationS. These efforts build community goodwill and enhance
the agency’s reputation, indirectly attracting new clients through positive visibility in the industry and media. Image and Reputation
A strong reputation is critical for agencies to attract clients. Recognition through awards like
the Effie Awards, Cannes Lions, and CLIO Awards highlights an agency’s creative and strategic
excellence across areas like media planning, digital, and public relations.
3.5 SPECIALIZED SERVICES Direct-Marketing Agencies
Direct marketing is one of the fastest-growing areas of integrated marketing communications
(IMC), utilizing methods like telemarketing, direct mail, the Internet, and other direct-
response advertising to reach consumers. As this sector expands, many companies have
turned to specialized direct-marketing agencies to leverage their expertise. Services provided
by direct-marketing agencies include database analytics and management, direct mail,
research, media services, creative production, and digital marketing. A key focus is developing
and managing databases to attract new customers and foster loyalty among existing ones.
These agencies typically have three main departments: account management (to oversee
client relationships and marketing programs), creative (for copywriting and production of
direct-response messages), and media (for ad placement). Direct-marketing agencies actively
seek new business through performance reviews with existing clients and are generally compensated on a fee basis.
Sales Promotion Agencies
Sales promotion agencies specialize in developing and managing programs such as contests,
sweepstakes, refunds, rebates, premium offers, and sampling initiatives (rút thăm trúng
thưởng, hoàn tiền, chiết khấu, ưu đãi cao cấp và các sáng kiến lấy mẫu), which are often lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
complex and require expertise. Services include promotional planning, creative research, tie-
in coordination, fulfillment, premium design, catalog production, and contest/sweepstakes
management. Many agencies are also expanding into digital and direct/database marketing
to enhance their IMC offerings. Public Relations Firms
Large companies often employ both an advertising agency and a public relations (PR) firm to
manage their public image and relationships with stakeholders like consumers, employees,
suppliers, government, and the public. PR firms analyze client relationships, develop
strategies, and execute programs using tools like publicity, lobbying, public affairs, community
events, news releases, and crisis management. As companies adopt IMC, PR firms increasingly
integrate their efforts with advertising and other promotional activities to ensure consistent
messaging and cost efficiency. Digital Agencies
The rapid growth of the Internet and digital media has led to the rise of specialized digital
agencies, as marketers increasingly rely on digital tools like website design, apps, search
engine optimization (SEO), banner ads, video, mobile marketing, and social media campaigns.
Digital agencies require expertise in digital media, content marketing, email marketing, lead
generation, database management, and customer relationship management (CRM). The
growth of digital and social media marketing is driving more companies to rely on these
agencies for integrated campaigns across platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat. Collateral Services
These services include marketing research companies, package design firms, consultants,
photographers, graphic design companies, talent agencies, video production houses, and
event marketing firms. Among these, marketing research firms are one of the most widely
utilized, as companies increasingly rely on them to better understand their target audiences
and gather valuable insights for designing and evaluating advertising and promotional
programs. These firms conduct both qualitative research, such as in-depth interviews and
focus groups, and quantitative studies, like market surveys, to provide actionable data for
advertisers. As digital marketing becomes a larger part of integrated marketing
communications (IMC) programs, new marketing technology services have emerged to
support areas like mobile marketing, content marketing, email marketing, social media,
programmatic media buying, customer experience, and analytics. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Chapter 4: Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
4.2 THE CONSUMER DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Problem Recognition
Problem recognition, the first stage in the consumer decision-making process, occurs when a
consumer perceives a need and becomes motivated to address it, triggering subsequent
decision-making stages. This stage arises from a discrepancy between the consumer’s ideal
state (what they want) and actual state (what they currently have), where the “problem” can
involve achieving a more positive situation, not just resolving a negative one (iai đoạn này phát
sinh từ sự khác biệt giữa trạng thái lý tưởng (những gì họ muốn) và trạng thái thực tế (những
gì họ hiện có), trong đó “vấn đề” có thể liên quan đến việc đạt được một tình huống tích cực
hơn, không chỉ giải quyết một tình huống tiêu cực). Several factors can cause problem recognition:
● Out of Stock: Consumers recognize a need when they deplete their stock of a product,
prompting a routine purchase of a familiar or trusted brand.
● Dissatisfaction: Dissatisfaction with a current product or situation, such as
uncomfortable or outdated snow boots, drives problem recognition.
● New Needs/Wants: Life changes, such as new jobs, financial shifts, or having a baby,
create new needs (e.g., a new wardrobe or family car). Wants, unlike needs, are desires
for non-essential items that consumers still seek to fulfill.
● Related Products/Purchases: Buying one product can trigger the need for related
items, such as purchasing an iPhone leading to a need for accessories like chargers or
apps, or an iPad prompting the purchase of a cover or screen cleaner.
● Marketer-Induced Problem Recognition: Marketers can stimulate problem
recognition by creating dissatisfaction with the consumer’s current state. Ads for
personal hygiene products (e.g., mouthwash, deodorant) or fashion (e.g., Splat
encouraging hair color changes in Exhibit 4-3) often create insecurities or perceptions
of being outdated, motivating consumers to act.
4.3 EXAMINING CONSUMER MOTIVATIONS
Marketers recognize that problem recognition is often a simple process, but motivation can
significantly influence how consumers proceed. For example, one consumer may buy a watch
for its functionality, while another focuses on its design and brand as a status symbol. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Understanding these underlying motivations is key for marketers. Two prominent theories explain consumer motivations: Hierarchy of Needs
Psychoanalytic Theory (lý thuyết phân tâm học)
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory explores the unconscious motives (động lực vô thức)
behind consumer behavior, suggesting that purchases are driven by deep, often hidden
motivations. While complex and unclear to casual observers, these motives can be uncovered
through in-depth research. Motivation research, using methods like in-depth interviews and
focus groups, helps marketers uncover these motives.
Motivation Research in Marketing
Motivation research employs methods like in-depth interviews, projective techniques,
association tests, and focus groups to uncover consumers’ underlying motives. Examples
include a man associating a high-priced fur with protection for his wife, or women linking
perfume to attracting a partner.
Despite its insights, motivation research is controversial due to skepticism and small sample
sizes, though major corporations continue to use it to understand consumer behavior. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Problems and Contributions of Psychoanalytic Theory and Motivation Research
Psychoanalytic theory, while insightful, is criticized for its vagueness, reliance on small
samples, and difficulty in validating results. Motivation research also faces skepticism but
remains valuable for uncovering deep consumer feelings. Methods like focus groups and in-
depth interviews help marketers understand emotions and desires, though they may not
capture broader population trends. INFORMATION SEARCH
The second stage in the consumer decision-making process is information search, which
begins once a consumer recognizes a problem or need. Initially, consumers rely on internal
search, recalling past experiences or knowledge stored in memory to evaluate purchase
alternatives, especially for routine or repetitive purchases where prior outcomes are sufficient
for decision-making. If internal search does not provide enough information, consumers turn
to external search, utilizing sources such as:
● Internet Sources: Websites, consumer reviews, and organizations like Angie’s List or
Yelp (Exhibit 4-7) provide valuable information.
● Personal Sources: Friends, relatives, co-workers, or marketing-controlled sources like
advertising, salespeople, and packaging.
● Public Sources: Articles, TV reports, or newspaper content. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
● Personal Experience: Hands-on interaction with the product, such as testing or examining it.
The extent of external search depends on factors like the importance of the purchase, the
effort required, the perceived risk, and past experiences. For example, a simple decision like
choosing a movie might involve checking a friend’s recommendation or an app, while a
complex purchase like a car might require reviewing Kelley Blue Book, Consumer Reports, or test-driving vehicles.
PERCEPTION (Nhận thức)
Perception is the process by which consumers acquire, select, and interpret information from
external sources, influenced by factors like their beliefs, needs, and experiences. It involves
three key processes: sensation, interpretation, and selective perception.
Sensation (Cản nhận)
Sensation refers to the immediate sensory response (taste, sight, touch, hearing, smell) to a
stimulus like an ad, package, or brand name. Marketers use sensory elements to attract attention. Selecting Information
Sensory inputs are crucial, but psychological factors like personality, needs, motives, and
experiences also determine what information consumers focus on. Selective perception filters
out irrelevant stimuli, focusing on what aligns with a consumer’s needs. For instance, someone
shopping for a smartphone will pay more attention to related ads than unrelated ones,
highlighting the challenge for marketers to break through this filter.
Interpreting the Information (Diễn giải thông tin)
Interpretation involves organizing, categorizing, and assigning meaning to information,
influenced by individual beliefs and expectations. Ads with clear messages are easier to
interpret, but ambiguous ones rely on the consumer’s subjective interpretation. Selective
perception, as shown in Figure 4-4, includes: ● Selective Exposure: Consumers choose
whether to engage with information (e.g., changing TV channels during commercials).
● Selective Attention: Consumers focus on stimuli relevant to their needs.
● Selective Comprehension (Diễn giải thông tin): Consumers interpret information
based on their beliefs, often in a biased way.
● Selective Retention (Giữ lại chọn lọc): Consumers retain information that aligns with
their attitudes, as seen in Exhibit 4-9, where an American Association of Advertising lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Agencies ad reminds consumers of their needs, or in Exhibit 4-10, where Coca-Cola
uses color to attract attention.
Subliminal Perception (Nhận thức tiềm thức)
Subliminal perception refers to perceiving stimuli below the conscious (ý thức) level, a
controversial tactic in advertising. While it may influence behavior subconsciously, research
shows mixed results, and consumers generally oppose its use due to ethical concerns. Despite
interest in subliminal advertising, its effectiveness remains limited, and ethical implications deter widespread adoption. ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
After gathering information during the information search stage, consumers proceed to
alternative evaluation, where they assess various brands or products to address their
recognized need. The brands or products considered as purchase options form the consumer’s evoked set.
The Evoked Set (Tập được kích hoạt)
The evoked set includes a limited number of brands the consumer is aware of and considers
during evaluation. Its size varies based on factors like the importance of the purchase and the
consumer’s time and energy. Marketers aim to ensure their brands are part of the evoked set
by increasing awareness among consumers. Established brands with large advertising budgets
often maintain high awareness levels, making it more likely for consumers to consider them.
New or lesser-known brands struggle to enter the evoked set. Marketers use strategies like
advertising, point-of-purchase materials, and promotional techniques to encourage
consumers to consider their brands.
Evaluative Criteria and Consequences (Tiêu chí đánh giá và hậu quả)
Consumers evaluate the brands in their evoked set using a list of evaluative criteria, which are
the dimensions or attributes they consider important. These criteria can be objective (e.g.,
price, warranty, fuel economy for a car) or subjective (e.g., image, styling, performance).
Marketers often view products as bundles of attributes but must consider the functional
consequences (tangible outcomes like a soft drink’s taste or internet speed) and psychosocial
consequences (intangible outcomes like how a product makes the consumer feel or how
others perceive them). For example, a car’s fuel economy is a functional consequence, while
its styling might influence social perception. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Psychosocial Consequences
Psychosocial consequences are subjective and personal, focusing on how a product makes the
consumer feel or how others perceive them. These outcomes significantly influence attitudes
and purchase decisions. Two key sub processes occur during alternative evaluation: (1) the
formation, reinforcement (củng cố), or change of consumer attitudes toward brands, and (2)
the decision rules or integration strategies consumers use to compare brands, which are explored further below. ATTITUDES
Attitudes are learned predispositions (khuynh hướng) to respond to an object and are critical
in consumer behavior. They summarize a consumer’s overall feelings or evaluations toward
objects like brands (e.g., Cheerios, AT&T, Nike). Marketers aim to create, reinforce, or change
attitudes to favor their brands.
Mô hình thái độ đa thuộc tính (Multiattribute Attitude Models)
Mô hình thái độ đa thuộc tính giúp các nhà tiếp thị hiểu thái độ của người tiêu dùng bằng cách
xem một thương hiệu như một tập hợp các thuộc tính. Theo mô hình này, người tiêu dùng có
niềm tin về các thuộc tính cụ thể của thương hiệu (B_i) và gán mức độ quan trọng (E_i) cho
mỗi thuộc tính. Thái độ đối với thương hiệu (A_B) được tính bằng tổng của niềm tin về mỗi
thuộc tính nhân với mức độ quan trọng của nó: A_B = (B_i × E_i). Ví dụ, một người tiêu dùng
có thể tinΣ rằng một loại kem đánh răng ngăn ngừa sâu răng tốt nhưng không ngăn ngừa cao
răng, trong khi đánh giá cao việc ngăn ngừa sâu răng hơn. Cha mẹ có thể ưu tiên ngăn ngừa
sâu răng cho trẻ em, trong khi thanh thiếu niên có thể coi trọng hơi thở thơm tho, ảnh hưởng
đến sở thích thương hiệu của họ. Các nhà tiếp thị phải xác định các niềm tin nổi bật và tầm
quan trọng của chúng qua các phân khúc thị trường và tình huống.
Attitude Change Strategies
Multiattribute models help marketers diagnose consumer attitudes and develop strategies to influence them, including:
● Increasing/Changing Belief Ratings: Enhancing the belief rating of a brand on an important attribute.
● Changing Attribute Importance: Altering consumers’ perceptions of an attribute’s value. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
● Adding New Attributes: Introducing new attributes to the evaluation process (e.g.,
Clorox promoting environmental friendliness).
● Changing Competitor Perceptions: Adjusting perceptions of competitors’ brands.
Marketers often focus on reinforcing an attribute’s importance or adding new ones to influence attitudes.
INTEGRATION PROCESSES & DECISION RULES
Integration processes combine product knowledge, meanings, and beliefs to evaluate
purchase alternatives. Consumers use decision rules to make choices, often employing
heuristics (phán đoán đơn giảN) for simpler decisions (e.g., buying the cheapest brand or
choosing based on promotions). For familiar products, consumers might use effective referral
(tham chiếu cảm xúc) rules, relying on overall impressions of brands, especially for well-known
brands. Marketers must understand which attributes and rules consumers prioritize to provide relevant information. PURCHASE DECISION
At some point, consumers stop evaluating alternatives and make a purchase decision,
matching their motives with the brand’s attributes. The decision involves not just selecting a
brand but also additional choices like where to buy and how much to spend. A time delay
often occurs between the purchase intention and the actual purchase, especially for complex
purchases like cars or computers.
For nondurable goods (e.g., packaged items), the time between decision and purchase is
short, and consumers often develop brand loyalty—a preference for a specific brand—due to
repeated satisfaction. Marketers aim to build and maintain brand loyalty through reminder
advertising, prominent shelf positions, and promotions.
POST PURCHASE EVALUATION
After using a product or service, consumers compare its performance to their expectations.
Satisfaction occurs if expectations are met or exceeded; dissatisfaction happens if
performance falls short. This evaluation affects future purchases: positive outcomes increase
the likelihood of repurchasing, while negative ones may lead to negative attitudes, reducing
future purchases. Cognitive dissonance, a feeling of doubt after a tough choice, can occur,
especially if the unchosen option had desirable features. Consumers may reduce dissonance
by seeking reassurance, ignoring conflicting information, or focusing on supportive ads lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
VARIATIONS IN CONSUMER DECISION - MAKING
Consumers don’t always follow all five decision-making stages (problem recognition,
information search, alternative evaluation, purchase decision, post purchase evaluation) with
the same intensity. For low-involvement, routine purchases (e.g., cheap, frequent items),
stages are minimized. Marketers of such products maintain brand awareness through ads and
promotions to stay in the evoked set (e.g., Ally Bank in Exhibit 4-14). New brands use
promotions like free samples to break into routines. High-involvement purchases require more
extensive decision-making, needing detailed information on attributes and distribution.
4.4 THE CONSUMER LEARNING PROCESS
BEHAVIOURAL LEARNING THEORY
Behavioral learning focuses on external stimuli and responses. Two main theories are:
● Classical Conditioning (Điều Kiện Hóa Cổ Điển): This involves associating a stimulus
with a response through repetition. In marketing, brands use classical conditioning to
associate products with positive emotions, like pairing a perfume with the sweetness
of lollipops (e.g., Mariah Carey’s Lollipop Bling).
● Operant Conditioning (Điều Kiện Hóa Tác Nhân): This theory emphasizes active
participation in learning through rewards or punishments. Positive reinforcement
(e.g., a coupon after a purchase) increases the likelihood of repeat behavior, while
negative reinforcement encourages behavior to avoid unpleasant outcomes.
Applying Classical Conditioning
Marketers use classical conditioning to create favorable associations with their products. For
example, pairing a product with music or emotions can enhance recall and influence consumer preferences.
Applying Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning in marketing involves rewarding desired behaviors to encourage repeat
purchases. Marketers also use shaping (gradual reinforcement) (định hình (củng cố dần dần)
to guide consumers toward a desired behavior, such as offering escalating discounts to encourage larger purchases.
Cognitive Learning Theory (Lý Thuyết Học Hỏi Nhận Thức)
Cognitive learning focuses on internal processes like thinking and perception, rather than
external stimuli. It views consumers as active decision-makers who use knowledge to make
choices. This approach is crucial for understanding complex purchase decisions involving
beliefs, attitudes, and preferences, as seen in the five-stage decision process model. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Environmental Influences on Consumer Behavior
Consumer behavior is influenced by external factors beyond their control. These include
culture, subculture, social class, reference groups, and situational determinants, each playing
a role in shaping purchase decisions. Culture
Culture, the broadest external factor, encompasses shared values, norms, and customs within
a society. It guides consumer behavior, and marketers must adapt to cultural shifts to remain
relevant. For instance, American culture influences advertising strategies, but marketers must
also consider cultural differences in diverse markets to tailor their programs effectively.
Subcultures (Tiểu Văn Hóa)
Subcultures are smaller groups within a culture, defined by factors like age, ethnicity, or
geography. Examples include African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans in the U.S.
Subcultures influence purchasing patterns, and marketers design specific campaigns to target these groups. Social Class
Societies are divided into social classes (upper, middle, lower in the U.S.), which influence
consumer lifestyles, values, and purchasing habits. Social class affects product preferences
and media consumption, so marketers tailor strategies accordingly. lOMoAR cPSD| 61408350
Reference Groups (Nhóm Tham Chiếu)
Reference groups are those that influence an individual’s behavior through shared norms and
values, such as peers, family, or coworkers. They shape purchase decisions by providing social validation. Family Decision Making
Families play a key role in purchase decisions, with roles varying by member (e.g., initiator,
influencer, decision-maker). For instance, a mother may initiate a car purchase, while the
family collectively decides. Marketers must understand these dynamics to target the right
family member in their campaigns.
Situational Determinants
Situational factors, such as the product’s usage context, time, and communication
environment, impact purchase decisions. For example, a car purchase may differ based on
urgency or social context. Marketers must consider these factors to enhance the effectiveness of their strategies.
4.6 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Alternative Approaches to Consumer Behavior
Consumer behavior studies have evolved beyond traditional psychological perspectives to
include insights from disciplines like economics, sociology, anthropology, philosophy,
semiotics, neuroscience, and history. These crossdisciplinary approaches provide a broader
understanding of consumer decisionmaking processes. Additionally, advancements in
technology have introduced new methods to explore consumer behavior more effectively.
New Methodologies (Phương Pháp Mới)
Traditional psychological studies often focus on controlled settings, but sociologists and
anthropologists (nhân học) use qualitative methods like interviews, participant observation,
and ethnographies to capture social, cultural, and environmental influences on consumer
behavior. These methods offer deeper insights into how societal and cultural factors shape
consumer actions, often proving more effective than conventional surveys for understanding complex behaviors. New Insights
Alternative perspectives, such as those from the humanities (ngành nhân văn), emphasize
cultural and historical contexts in consumer research. For example, historians and
semioticians analyze the symbolic meanings of advertising messages, while cultural studies