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CHEMISTRY LABORATORYCHEMISTRY LABORATORY
REPORTREPORT
Experiment 4: CHEMICALExperiment 4: CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUMEQUILIBRIUM
TToo:: InstructorInstructor: PhD Hoang Le Son: PhD Hoang Le Son
FromFrom: Do Truong Anh Thu -: Do Truong Anh Thu - Student ID:Student ID:BTBCIU14046BTBCIU14046
Subject:Subject:
General Chemisr! La"oraor!General Chemisr! La"oraor!
DateDate
: #$o"er 1%: #$o"er 1%
hh
& %01'& %01'
I. INTRODUCTIONI. INTRODUCTION
This e()erimen ells us he *a! o i+eni,! an+ o"sere he $hange o, he reersi"leThis e()erimen ells us he *a! o i+eni,! an+ o"sere he $hange o, he reersi"le
rea$ion a e.uili"rium *hen a))l!ing sresses an+ e()lain hose $hanges "! he Lerea$ion a e.uili"rium *hen a))l!ing sresses an+ e()lain hose $hanges "! he Le
Chaelier/s Prin$i)le hen he rae o, he ,or*ar+ "a$2*ar+ rea$ion "e$omes e.ual oChaelier/s Prin$i)le hen he rae o, he ,or*ar+ "a$2*ar+ rea$ion "e$omes e.ual o
he rae o, "a$2*ar+ rea$ion& he reersi"le is a e.uili"rium I, a s!sem a e.uili"riumhe rae o, "a$2*ar+ rea$ion& he reersi"le is a e.uili"rium I, a s!sem a e.uili"rium
is su"3e$e+ o a $hange o, )ressure& em)eraure o, he $on$enraion o, he $om)onens&is su"3e$e+ o a $hange o, )ressure& em)eraure o, he $on$enraion o, he $om)onens&
here *ill "e a en+en$! ,or he ne rea$ion in he +ire$ion ha agains he e,,e$ o, hishere *ill "e a en+en$! ,or he ne rea$ion in he +ire$ion ha agains he e,,e$ o, his
$hange Le Chaelier/s Prin$i)le5$hange Le Chaelier/s Prin$i)le5
II. PROCEDUREII. PROCEDURE
A. Instruments:A. Instruments:
#ne '0 mL "ure#ne '0 mL "ure
#ne 10 mL )i)e#ne 10 mL )i)e
#ne '0 mL gra+uae+ $!lin+er#ne '0 mL gra+uae+ $!lin+er
T*T*o %'0 o %'0 mL "ea2ersmL "ea2ers
T*T*o 1'0 o 1'0 mL "ea2ersmL "ea2ers
#ne sirring ro+#ne sirring ro+
T*en! es u"esT*en! es u"es
T*o es u"e hol+ersT*o es u"e hol+ers
#ne es u"e ra$2#ne es u"e ra$2
#ne me+i$ine +ro))er#ne me+i$ine +ro))er
I$e "ahI$e "ah
aer "ahaer "ah
La"elLa"el
B. Exer!menta" Procedure:B. Exer!menta" Procedure:
11
S#stem $S#stem $: A$i+ "ase e.uili"rium: A$i+ "ase e.uili"rium
A++ 10 +ro)s o, $on$enrae+ HCl in o a $lean es u"e *hi$h has 10 +ro)s o, 0' 7 8A++ 10 +ro)s o, $on$enrae+ HCl in o a $lean es u"e *hi$h has 10 +ro)s o, 0' 7 8
%%
Cr#Cr#
44
9e$or+ !our o"seraion9e$or+ !our o"seraion
A,er ha& a++ more ' +ro)s o, 6 a#H #"sere he $hange o, $olorA,er ha& a++ more ' +ro)s o, 6 a#H #"sere he $hange o, $olor
%%
S#stem %S#stem %: ;.uili"rium o, a$i+ "ase in+i$aors: ;.uili"rium o, a$i+ "ase in+i$aors
A++ %0ml o, +isille+ *aer ino a $lean A++ %0ml o, +isille+ *aer ino a $lean es u"e *hi$h has % +ro)s o, es u"e *hi$h has % +ro)s o, meh!l iole&meh!l iole&
mi( hem *ell The soluion *as +ii+e+ ino % es u"esmi( hem *ell The soluion *as +ii+e+ ino % es u"es
-- TeTes u"e 1 s u"e 1 *as a++e+ nohing*as a++e+ nohing
--
Tes u"e %:Tes u"e %:
< A++ he 6 7 HCl soluion +ro) *ise unil ,urher a++iion resuls in no signi,i$an< A++ he 6 7 HCl soluion +ro) *ise unil ,urher a++iion resuls in no signi,i$an
$hange #"sere he $hange$hange #"sere he $hange
< A++ he 6 7 a#H soluion +ro) *ise unill ,urher a++iion resuls in no $olor< A++ he 6 7 a#H soluion +ro) *ise unill ,urher a++iion resuls in no $olor
$hange #"sere he $hange$hange #"sere he $hange
< Again a++ he 6 7 HCl soluion +ro) *ise unil ,urher a++iion resuls in no< Again a++ he 6 7 HCl soluion +ro) *ise unil ,urher a++iion resuls in no
sini,i$an $hange #"sere he $hangesini,i$an $hange #"sere he $hange
==
S#stem &:S#stem &:Com)le( ion ,ormaionCom)le( ion ,ormaion
Pre)araion o, iron III5 hio$!anae soluion: in a 1'0 mL "ea2er& )la$e 10 mL o, 01Pre)araion o, iron III5 hio$!anae soluion: in a 1'0 mL "ea2er& )la$e 10 mL o, 01
7 >eCl7 >eCl
==
an+ 10 mL o, 01 7 8SC& an+ hen a++ '0 mL o, +isillan+ 10 mL o, 01 7 8SC& an+ hen a++ '0 mL o, +isille+ *aer& mi(e+ *aer& mi(
*ell Dii+e he soluion eenl! among 6 similarl!-si?e+ es u"e @1-5*ell Dii+e he soluion eenl! among 6 similarl!-si?e+ es u"e @1-5
-- TeTes u"e @1: $onrol5 s u"e @1: $onrol5 a++ nohinga++ nohing
-- Tes u"e @%: a++ % mL o, 01 7 >eClTes u"e @%: a++ % mL o, 01 7 >eCl
==
o he soluion #"sere he $hangeo he soluion #"sere he $hange
-- Tes u"e @=: a++ % mL o, 01 7 8SC o he soluion #"sere he $hangeTes u"e @=: a++ % mL o, 01 7 8SC o he soluion #"sere he $hange
-- TeTes u"e @4: a++ 10 s u"e @4: a++ 10 +ro)s o, 6 7 A#H o he soluion +ro)s o, 6 7 A#H o he soluion Des$ri"e he $hange in heDes$ri"e he $hange in he
soluionsoluion
-- Tes u"e @': $ool he es u"e in an i$e "ahTes u"e @': $ool he es u"e in an i$e "ah
-- TeTes u"e @6: *arm he es u"e in s u"e @6: *arm he es u"e in a ho *aer "ah Com)are he a ho *aer "ah Com)are he inensi! o, he $olor ininensi! o, he $olor in
es u"e @1 $onrol- room em)eraure5& @' $ol+5 an+ es u"e @1 $onrol- room em)eraure5& @' $ol+5 an+ @6 ho5@6 ho5
-- TeTes u"e @: as u"e @: a++ 01 7 Ag#++ 01 7 Ag#
==
soluion +ro) "! +ro) usoluion +ro) "! +ro) unill all he $olor +isa))earsnill all he $olor +isa))ears
9e$or+ o"seraions9e$or+ o"seraions
44 S#stem 'S#stem ': ;.uili"rium o, )re$i)iaion rea$ions: ;.uili"rium o, )re$i)iaion rea$ions
' mL o, 00' 7 CaCl' mL o, 00' 7 CaCl
%%
*ere )u ino ea$h o, he *o es u"es la"ele+ @1 an+ @%*ere )u ino ea$h o, he *o es u"es la"ele+ @1 an+ @%
-- Tes u"e @1: a++ 1 mL o, 01 7 aTes u"e @1: a++ 1 mL o, 01 7 a
%%
CC
%%
##
44
soluion #"sere he $hangesoluion #"sere he $hange
-- Tes u"e @%:Tes u"e @%:
< A++ 1 mL o, 01 7 H< A++ 1 mL o, 01 7 H
%%
CC
%%
##
44
 #"sere he $hange& $om)aring o he es u"e @1 #"sere he $hange& $om)aring o he es u"e @1
< A++ 10 +ro)s o, 6 7 HCl #"sere he $hange< A++ 10 +ro)s o, 6 7 HCl #"sere he $hange
< A++ 10 +ro)s o, 6 7 H< A++ 10 +ro)s o, 6 7 H
44
#H #"sere he $hange#H #"sere he $hange
''
S#stem (:S#stem (: TeTem)eraure e,,e$s on m)eraure e,,e$s on e.uili"riae.uili"ria
= mL o, 01 7 CoCl= mL o, 01 7 CoCl
%%
*as )u ino a 1'0 *as )u ino a 1'0 mL "ea2er mL "ea2er A++ $on$enrae+ HCl +ro) *iseA++ $on$enrae+ HCl +ro) *ise
unil he soluion urns a )ur)le-iole $olor I, he s!sem urns a +ee) "lue&unil he soluion urns a )ur)le-iole $olor I, he s!sem urns a +ee) "lue&
in+i$aing oo mu$h $hlori+e& +is$ar+ he soluion an+ sar againin+i$aing oo mu$h $hlori+e& +is$ar+ he soluion an+ sar again
Dii+e he soluion e.uall! ino hree es u"es la"ele+ Dii+e he soluion e.uall! ino hree es u"es la"ele+ @1-=@1-=
-- TeTes u"e @1: $onrol5 s u"e @1: $onrol5 2ee) a room 2ee) a room em)eraureem)eraure
--
Tes u"e @%: )la$e in a ho *aer "ah #"sere he $hangeTes u"e @%: )la$e in a ho *aer "ah #"sere he $hange
-- TeTes u"e @=: )la$e in an s u"e @=: )la$e in an i$e-*aer "ah #"sere he $hangei$e-*aer "ah #"sere he $hange
S*i$h es u"e %  = #"sere S*i$h es u"e %  = #"sere he $hange Allo* hem "oh o $ool o room em)eraurehe $hange Allo* hem "oh o $ool o room em)eraure
Com)are o he $onrolCom)are o he $onrol
III. DATA AND DISCUSSIONIII. DATA AND DISCUSSION
$. ACID)BASE E*UI+IBRIA$. ACID)BASE E*UI+IBRIA
;.uili"rium S!sem:;.uili"rium S!sem:
%CrO%CrO
''
%%
, , %-%-
,,
a/0a/0 CrCr
%%
OO
11
%%
, -, -
%%
O"0O"0
Descr!t!on o2Descr!t!on o2
cond!t!onscond!t!ons
Pred!ctedPred!cted
outcomeoutcome
OObbsseerr33aatt!!oonn EExx""aannaatt!!oonn
Iniial soluionIniial soluion
The $olor +oesThe $olor +oes
no $hangeno $hange
TThhe e $$oolloor r iis s ssiilll l !!eelllloo** TThhe e rreeaa$$iioon n iis s iin n ee..uuiillii""rriiuumm
< < CCoonn$$ HHCCll TThhe $e $oolloorr
$hanges o$hanges o
orangeorange
The $olor $hanges ,rom !ello*The $olor $hanges ,rom !ello*
o orangeo orange
TThhe e $$oonn$$eennrraaiioon n oo, , hhee
rea$an Hrea$an H
<<
5 in$reases& so he5 in$reases& so he
rraae e oo, , ,,oorr**aarr+ + rreeaa$$iioonn
in$reases The rea$ion shi,s oin$reases The rea$ion shi,s o
hhe e ririghgh& & anan+ + )r)ro+uo+u$e$es s momorere
CrCr
%%
##
%-%-
orange5orange5
< < 6 6 aa##HH TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges "a$2$hanges "a$2
o he iniialo he iniial
$olor$olor
The $olor $hanges ,rom orangeThe $olor $hanges ,rom orange
o !ello*o !ello*
TThhe e $$oonn$$eennrraaiioon n oo, , hhee
)ro+u$ )ro+u$ #H#H
--
5 in$reases& so he5 in$reases& so he
rraae e oo, , "a"a$$22**aarr+ + rreeaa$$iioonn
in$reases The rea$ion shi,s oin$reases The rea$ion shi,s o
he he lle,e, anan+ + )r)ro+o+u$u$es es mmororee
Cr#Cr#
44
%-%-
!ello*5!ello*5
%. %. E*UI+IBRIA OF E*UI+IBRIA OF ACID)BASE INDICAACID)BASE INDICATORSTORS
;.uili"rium S!sem:;.uili"rium S!sem:
-450a/0 -450a/0 , , --
%%
O"0O"0
--
&&
OO
,,
a/0 a/0 , , 4545
a/0a/0
AAdddd!!tt!!oonn PPrreedd!!cctteedd
outcomeoutcome
OObbsseerr33aatt!!oonn EExx""aannaatt!!oonn
oneone
$onrol5$onrol5
The $olor +oesThe $olor +oes
no $hangeno $hange
The $olor is sill ioleThe $olor is sill iole
6 6 7 7 HHCCll TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges$hanges
The $olor $hanges ,rom iole oThe $olor $hanges ,rom iole o
"lue& ,rom "lue o green"lue& ,rom "lue o green
The $on$enraion o, HThe $on$enraion o, H
<<
in$reases an+ he rea$ionin$reases an+ he rea$ion
shi,s o he le,shi,s o he le,
6 6 7 7 aa##HH TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges o$hanges o
ioleiole
The $olor $hanges ,rom green oThe $olor $hanges ,rom green o
ioleiole
The #HThe #H
--
o, a#H rea$s *iho, a#H rea$s *ih
HH
<<
so he $on$enraion o, Hso he $on$enraion o, H
<<
in he soluion +e$rease so hein he soluion +e$rease so he
rea$ion shi,s o he righrea$ion shi,s o he righ
6 6 7 7 HHCCll TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges$hanges
The $olor $hanges ,rom iole oThe $olor $hanges ,rom iole o
greengreen
The $on$enraion o, H<The $on$enraion o, H<
in$reases again *hen a++ingin$reases again *hen a++ing
HCl ino he soluion& an+ heHCl ino he soluion& an+ he
rea$ion shi,s o he le,rea$ion shi,s o he le,
&. CO4P+E6 ION FOR4ATION&. CO4P+E6 ION FOR4ATION
;.uili"rium S!sem:;.uili"rium S!sem:
FeFe
&,&,
, , SCNSCN
7FeNCS8 7FeNCS8
%,%,
Pale Pale !ello*5 Clear5 !ello*5 Clear5 9e+59e+5
AAdddd!!tt!!oonn PPrreedd!!cctteedd
outcomeoutcome
OObbsseerr33aatt!!oonn EExx""aannaatt!!oonn
oneone
$onrol5$onrol5
The $olor +oesThe $olor +oes
no $hangeno $hange
TThhe e $$oolloor r iis s ssiilll l oorraannggee TThhe e rreeaa$$iioon n iis s aa ee..uuiillii""rriiuumm
0017 >eCl0017 >eCl
==
The $olorThe $olor
$hanges o re+$hanges o re+
The $olor $hanges ,rom orangeThe $olor $hanges ,rom orange
o ligh re+o ligh re+
hen in$reasing >ehen in$reasing >e
=<=<
 "! "!
a++ing >eCla++ing >eCl
==
& he s!sem shi,s& he s!sem shi,s
o he righ an+ >eCSo he righ an+ >eCS
%<%<
in$reasesin$reases
0001 01 7 87 8SCSC ThThe $e $ololoror
$hanges o re+$hanges o re+
The $olor $hanges ,rom orangeThe $olor $hanges ,rom orange
o +ar2er orangeo +ar2er orange
hen in$reasing SChen in$reasing SC
--
 "! "!
a++ing >eCla++ing >eCl
==
& he s!sem shi,s& he s!sem shi,s
o he righ an+ >eCSo he righ an+ >eCS
%<%<
in$reasesin$reases
667 7 aa##HH TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges o$hanges o
The The $olor $olor $hanges $hanges ,rom ,rom orange orange hen hen a++ing a++ing a#H a#H ino ino hehe
soluion& #Hsoluion& #H
--
rea$s *ih >erea$s *ih >e
=<=<
!!eelllloo** o o ))aalle e !!eelllloo** o o ,,oorrm m hhe e ))rree$$ii))iiaaee& & sso o hhee
$on$enraion o, >e$on$enraion o, >e
=<=<
+e$reases+e$reases
an+ he s!sem shi,s o he le,an+ he s!sem shi,s o he le,
CCooll++ TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges o re+$hanges o re+
The $olor $hanges ,rom orangeThe $olor $hanges ,rom orange
o +ar2er orangeo +ar2er orange
This s!sem is e(ohermalThis s!sem is e(ohermal
rea$ion& *hen he em)eraurerea$ion& *hen he em)eraure
+e$reases& he s!sem shi,s o+e$reases& he s!sem shi,s o
he righ an+ in$reasinghe righ an+ in$reasing
>eCS>eCS
%<%<
HHoo TThhe e $$oolloorr
$hanges o$hanges o
!ello*!ello*
The $olor $hanges ,rom orangeThe $olor $hanges ,rom orange
o )ale !ello*o )ale !ello*
hen he em)eraurehen he em)eraure
in$reases& he s!sem shi,s oin$reases& he s!sem shi,s o
he le, an+ in$reasing >ehe le, an+ in$reasing >e
=<=<
  
SCSC
--
017 Ag#017 Ag#
==
The *hieThe *hie
)re$i)iae)re$i)iae
a))earsa))ears
>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae
an+ *hie soluionan+ *hie soluion
#$$urring he rea$ion: Ag#$$urring he rea$ion: Ag
<<
<<
SCSC
--
E AgSCFE AgSCF
*hie5*hie5
TheThe
s!sem shi,s o he le, +ue os!sem shi,s o he le, +ue o
he +e$rease o, SChe +e$rease o, SC
--
'. '. E*UI+IE*UI+IBRIA BRIA OF OF PRECIPIPRECIPITATATION TION REACTIREACTIONSONS
;.uili"rium S!sem:;.uili"rium S!sem:
CaCa
%,%,
a/0 a/0 , , CC
%%
OO
''
%%
a/0a/0 CaCCaC
%%
OO
''
s0s0
AAdddd!!tt!!oonn PPrreedd!!cctteedd
outcomeoutcome
OObbsseerr33aatt!!oonn EExx""aannaatt!!oonn
01 701 7
aa
%%
CC
%%
##
44
hiehie
)re$i)iae)re$i)iae
>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae
an+ li.ui+ "e$omes $olorlessan+ li.ui+ "e$omes $olorless
aa
%%
CC
%%
##
44
E %aE %a
<<
< C< C
%%
##
44
%-%-
CC
%%
##
44
%-%-
< Ca< Ca
%<%<
E CaCE CaC
%%
##
44
The s!sem shi,s o he righThe s!sem shi,s o he righ
01 701 7
HH
%%
CC
%%
##
44
hiehie
)re$i)iae)re$i)iae
>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae
an+ li.ui+ has ligh *hie $oloran+ li.ui+ has ligh *hie $olor
HH
%%
CC
%%
##
44
E %HE %H
--
< C< C
%%
##
44
%-%-
The $on$enraion o, CThe $on$enraion o, C
%%
##
44
%-%-
in$rease an+ he rea$ion shi,sin$rease an+ he rea$ion shi,s
o he righo he righ
6 7 HCl6 7 HCl
Pre$i)iae isPre$i)iae is
+issole++issole+
The $olor $hanges ,rom lighThe $olor $hanges ,rom ligh
*hie o $olorless*hie o $olorless
HH
<<
,rom HCl rea$s *ih C,rom HCl rea$s *ih C
%%
##
44
%-%-
o ,orm Ho ,orm H
%%
CC
%%
##
44
& so he C& so he C
%%
##
44
%-%-
+e$reases an+ he s!sem shi,s+e$reases an+ he s!sem shi,s
o he le,o he le,
6 7 H6 7 H
44
##HH hhiiee
)re$i)iae)re$i)iae
>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae>ormaion o, *hie )re$i)iae
an+ *hie li.ui+an+ *hie li.ui+
#H#H
--
,orm H,orm H
44
#H rea$s *ih#H rea$s *ih
CaCa
%<%<
o ,orm *hie )re$i)iaeo ,orm *hie )re$i)iae
Ca#H5Ca#H5
%%
& so he Ca& so he Ca
%<%<
+e$reases an+ he rea$ions+e$reases an+ he rea$ions
shi,s o he le,shi,s o he le,
(. TE4PERATURE EFFECTS ON E*UI+IBRIA(. TE4PERATURE EFFECTS ON E*UI+IBRIA
;.uili"rium S!sem:;.uili"rium S!sem:
Co-Co-
%%
O09O09
%,%,
a/0 a/0 , , 'C"'C"
a/0a/0 CoC" CoC"
''
%%
a/0 , 9-a/0 , 9-
%%
O"0O"0
!n0 !n0 dee dee b"ue0b"ue0
Descr!t!onDescr!t!on
o2 cond!t!onso2 cond!t!ons
Pred!ctedPred!cted
outcomeoutcome
OObbsseerr33aatt!!oonn EExx""aannaatt!!oonn
Not;!n<Not;!n<
c;an<edc;an<ed
The $olor isThe $olor is
)in2)in2
TThhe e $$oolloor r $$hhaannggees s o o iioollee TThhe e CCll
--
a++ing ,rom HCl is noa++ing ,rom HCl is no
enough ,or he s!sem so heenough ,or he s!sem so he
soluion urns o iolesoluion urns o iole
-ot =ater-ot =ater
bat;bat;
The $olor isThe $olor is
"lue"lue
TThhe e $$oolloor r $$hhaannggees s o o ""lluuee TThhiis s ss!!sseem m iis s eenn++oohheerrmmaall
rea$ions& *hen in$reasingrea$ions& *hen in$reasing
em)eraure he rea$ion shi,sem)eraure he rea$ion shi,s
o he righ an+ heo he righ an+ he
[[
CoClCoCl
44
]]
%%
in$reasesin$reases
Ice>=aterIce>=ater
TThhe e $$oolloor r iis s TThe he $$oolloor r $$hhaanngeges s o o ))iinn22 hheen n +e+e$$rreeaassiing ng eemm)e)erraauurree
bat;bat;
)in2 )in2 he rea$ion shi,s o he le,he rea$ion shi,s o he le,
an+ hean+ he
[[CoHCoH
%%
#56#56]]
%<%<
in$reasesin$reases
I5. CONC+USION:I5. CONC+USION:
During ' e.uili"rium s!sems a"oe in his e()erimen& *hen During ' e.uili"rium s!sems a"oe in his e()erimen& *hen *e a))l!ing sresses in ea$h o,*e a))l!ing sresses in ea$h o,
rea$ion& he rea$ion *ill shi, o he +ire$ion ha re+u$e rea$ion& he rea$ion *ill shi, o he +ire$ion ha re+u$e he e,,e$ o, his $hange a$$or+ing ohe e,,e$ o, his $hange a$$or+ing o
he Le Chaelier/s )rin$i)le I, *e 2no* he righ +ire$ion o, rea$ion& he Le Chaelier/s )rin$i)le I, *e 2no* he righ +ire$ion o, rea$ion& *e $an $onrol& raise o,*e $an $onrol& raise o,
re+u$e he )ro+u$s as he *a! *e *anre+u$e he )ro+u$s as he *a! *e *an
| 1/11

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 CH C E H M E I M S I T S R T Y R L Y A L B A O B R O A R T A O T R O Y R RE R P E O P R O T R Experiment E xperiment 4 : 4 CH : E CH M E I M C I A C L A EQUILIBRIUM To: Instructor: : P h P D D H o H a o n a g n g Le Le So n So From Fr : D o D Tr u Tr ong g A n A h n Th u Th - St S u t d u en e t n ID I : D BTBCI  U140 4 46 Su S b u j b e j c e t c : t G  eneral Ch Chemisr! La L " a o " r o a r  a o  r! Dat Da e: : # $ #  $ o  " o e " r e r 1 % 1 h& % 0 % 1'  I. . INTROD TR UCTI T ON Th T i h s e( e ) ( er e im i en e  n el e ls l us u he h e *a! ! o o i+ i en e  n i,! , an a + n + o"s " er e e  e he h e $ha h n a g n e e o, o he h e re e e  rs r i"l " e rea$ion a a e. e uili"r " ium *hen a)) ) l!ing n sresses an+ e( e )lain hose $han a ges "! he e Le Cha Ch  a e  l e i l e i r e / r s / s Pri Pr n i $ n i $ ) i l ) e l  e  h  e h n e n h  e h e ra r  a e  e o, o , h  e h e ,or o *a r r *a + r + "a " $ a 2 $ *a 2 r *a + r + re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o n "e " $ e o $ m o e m s e s e. e u . a u l a l o h  e h e ra a e  e o, o , "a " $ a 2 $ *a 2 r *a + r + re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o & n & h  e h e re r  e e  r e s r i s " i l " e l e is i s a a  e. e u . i u l i i l " i r " i r u i m u  m  I, , a a s! s s !  s e  m e m a a  e. e u . i u l i i l " i r " i r u i m u is i s su s " u 3 " e 3 $ e  $ e  + e +  o  o a a $h $ a h n a g n e g e o, o , )r ) e r s e s s u s r u e r & e & e  m e ) m e ) r e a r  a u  r u e r e o, o , h  e h e $ o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n r  a r  a i  o i n o n o, o , h  e h e $ o $ m o ) m o ) n o e n n e  n s  & s h  e h r e e r e *il *i l l l "e " e a a e  n e + n e + n e $ n ! $ ! ,o , r o r he h e ne n  e  re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o n in i n h  e h e +i + r i e r $ e  $ i  o i n o n h  a h  a  ag a a g i a n i s n  s  he h e e, e , , e , $ e  $  o, o , h  i h s i $h $ a h n a g n e g e  L  e L e Ch a Ch  a e  l e i l e i r e / r s / s P r P in i $ n i $ ) i l ) e l 5 e  5 II. I PR OC O EDURE R A. A . In I s n t s r t u r m u e m n e t n s t : s #n #ne ' 0 mL L "u " r u e r  e T* T o * o e  s e  s  u  " u e " e ho h l o + l e + r e s r #ne #n e 1 0 1 0 m L m L ) i ) )e )  e #ne  e  s e  s   u" u e " e r a r $ a 2 $  2 #ne #n e ' 0 ' 0 m L m L g r g a+ a u + a u  a e+ e + $ ! $ l ! i l n i + n e + r e  r #ne #n e me m + e i + $ i i $ n i e n e + r + o r ) o ) ) e ) r e  r T* T o o % '0 mL " ea2ers I$ I e $ e " a "  a h  T* T o o 1 '0 mL " ea2ers a   a e  r e r " a "  a h  #ne #n e s i  r i r r i r ng n g r o r + o La L " a e " l e T* T e * n e  n !  ! e  s e  s  u  " u e " s e   B. B. Ex  Ex e  r e ! r m ! e m n e t n a t " a " Pr o Pr c o e c d e u d r u e r : e 1 1 S#s # t s em m $ : A$ i+ " ase e .uili"rium A++ A+ + 1 0 1 0 + r + o r ) o s ) s o , o , $ o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n r  a r  a e  + e + HCl HCl i n i n  o  o a a $ l $ e l a e n a n  e  s e  s   u  " u e " e *h i *h $ i h $ h h a h s a s 1 0 1 0 + r + o r ) o s ) s o , o , 0  0 '  ' 7 7 8 %Cr#4 9e$ 9e o $ r o + r + ! o ! u o r u r o " o s " e s r e  r a   a i  o i n o  n A, A, e  r e r  h  a h  a &  & a + a + + + m o m r o e r e ' ' + r + o r ) o s ) s o , o , 6  6 a  #H a  #H  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g e o , o , $ o $ l o o l r o  r % % S#s # t s em m % : ;.u . ili"rium o, o a$ a i $ + " a " se i n+ n i + $ i a $  a ors A++ A+ + % 0 % m 0 l m l o , o , + i + s i  s i  l i l l e l + e + * a *  a e  r e r i n i  n o  o a a $ l $ e l a e n a n es u"e " e *hi$h h as % % + ro)s o, o , me m  e h  ! h l ! l  i  o i l o e l  e &  mi(  hem *e ll The s oluion *as *a +i + i+e+ i no %  es u"es - Te T s  u  " u e e 1 1 *as a ++e+ + n o o hing - Tes e  u" u e " e % : % < A < + A + + +  h  e h e 6 6 7 7 HCl HCl s ol o u l  u i  o i n o n + r + o r ) o ) *i s *i e s e u n u  n i  l i l , u , r u  r h  e h r e r a + a + + i +  i i  o i n o n r e r s e u s l u  l s  s i n i n n o n o s i s g i n g i n , i i , $ i a $ n a  n $h $ a h n a g n e g  e  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g  e < A < + A + + +  h  e h e 6 6 7 7 a #H a #H s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n + r + o) o ) *i s *i e e u n u  n i  l i l l , u , r u  r h  e h r e r a + a + + i +  i io i n o n r es e u s l u  l s  s i n i n n o n o $ o $ l o o l r o $h $ a h n a g n e g  e  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g  e < A < g A a g i a n i n a + a + + +  h  e h e 6 6 7 7 H Cl H s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n + r + o r ) o ) *i s *i e s e u n u  n i  l i l , u , r u  r h  e h r e r a + a + + i +  i io i n o n r es e u s l u  l s  s i n i n n o n si s n i i n , i i , $ i a $ n a  n  $ h $ a h n a g n e g  e  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g  e = = S#s # t s em m &:Co  m)le( i on o n , ormaion Pre Pr ) e a ) r a a r  a i  o i n o n o , o i r i o r n o n  I  II I 5 I 5  h  i h o i $ o ! $ a ! n a a n  a e  e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o : n : i n i n a a 1 ' 1 0 ' 0 m L m L " e " a e 2 a e 2 r e & r & ) l ) a l $ a e $ e 1 0 1 0 m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  7 7 >e Cl >e = an a + n + 1 0 1 0 m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  1 7 7 8SC & 8SC & a n a + n +  h  e h n e n a + a + + + ' 0 ' 0 m L m L o , o , + i + s i  s i  l i l l e+ e + *a  *a er e & r & m i m ( i *el *e l l  l  D i D  i i  + i e + e  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n e  e e  n e l n ! l ! a m a o m n o g n g 6 6 s i s m i i m l i a l r a l r ! l - ! s - i s ? i e ? + e +  e  s e  s   u" u e " e  @  1 @ - 1 5  - Te T s  u  " u e e @ 1 @ : 1 :  $onrol5 a+ a + + + n ohing - Te T s e  s   u  " u e " e @ % @ : % : a + a + + + % % m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  1 7 7 >e Cl >e =  o  o  he s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o  n  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h nge e - Te T s e  s   u  " u e " e @ = @ : = : a + a + + + % % m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  1 7 7 8SC  8SC o  o  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o  n  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  he h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g  e - Te T s u"e e @ 4 @ : a + a + 10 1 0 +r + o r ) o s ) s o , 6 6 7 7 A#H  A#H o  h  e h e soluion Des De $ s r $ i r " i e " e  he $ h $ a h n a g n e g e i n i n  h  e h soluion  - Te T s e  s   u  " u e " e @ ' @ : ' : $ o $ o o l o l  h  e h e  e  s e  s   u  " u e " e i n i n a n a n i $ i e $ e " a "  a h   h - Te T s u"e e @ 6 @ : *a *arm  h  e h  e  s e  s u" u e " e i n i n a a h o *a er "a a h   h  Co m Co )ar a e  h  e h e in i  n e  n e s n i s  i !  ! o , o  h  e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r i n e  s e  s   u  " u e " e @ 1 @ 1  $o $ n o  n r  o r l o - l - r o r o o m o m  em e ) m e ) r e a a u  r u e r 5 e & 5 & @ ' @ '  $o $ l o + l 5 + 5 a n a + n + @6  ho h  o 5   5 - Te T s  u  " u e e @  @ :  : a ++ + + 0  0 1  1 7 7 Ag # Ag =s  o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n + r + o r ) o ) " ! " ! + r + o r ) o ) u n n i  l i l l l a l a l l l  he h e $ olor + i + s i a))e ) ars 9e$ 9e o $ r o + r + o " o s " e s r e  r a   a i  o i n o s n  s 4 4 S#s # t s em m ' : ; .uili"rium o , ) re$i)iaion r ea$ions ' ' m L m L o , o , 0  0 0  ' 0 ' 7 7 Ca Cl Ca %*ere ) u )  ino ea e $ a h o, he *o * o  e  s e  s   u  " u e " s la"el e e l + e + @1 1 a n a + n + @ % - Te T s e  s   u  " u e " e @ 1 @ : 1 : a + a + + + 1 1 m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  1 7 7 a %C%#4s  oluion #" # s " ere he h e $hange e - Te T s e  s   u  " u e " e @ % @ : % < A < + A + + + 1 1 m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  1 7 7 H %C%#4  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h nge g & e & $ o $ m o )aring g  o  o  h  e h e  e  s e  s   u  " u e " e @ 1 @ < A < + A + + + 1 0 1 0 + r + o r ) o s ) s o , o , 6 6 7 7 HCl  HCl  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g  < A < + A + + + 1 0 1 0 + r + o r ) o s ) s o , o , 6 6 7 7 H 4#H #H #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ ang n e g  e ' ' S#s # t s em m (: Te T m) m e ) r e a r  a u  r u e r e e, e , , e , $ e  $ s  s o n o n e.uili"ria = = m L m L o , o , 0  0 1  1 7 7 Co Cl Co %*a  s *a ) u )  i n i  n o  o a a 1 ' 1 0 ' 0 mL m L " ea e 2 a e 2 r A++ A+ + $ o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n ra r  a e  + e + HCl HCl + r + o r ) o ) *i s *i e s un u  n i  l i l  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n  u  r u n r s n s a a ) u ) r u ) r l ) e l - e  - i  o i l o e l  e  $ o $ l o o l r o  r  I , I ,  h  e h e s ! s s !  s e  m e m  u  r u n r s n s a a + e + e e ) e ) " l " u l e u & e in i + n i + $ i a $  a i  n i g n g  o  o o o m u m $ u h $ h $ h $ l h o l r o i r + i e + & e & + i + s i $ s a $ r a + r +  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n a n a + n + s  s a  r a r a g a a g i a n i  n Di Di i  + i e + e  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n e . e u . a u l a l l ! l ! i n i  n o  o  h  r h e r e e e  e  s e  s   u  " u e " s e s l a l " a e " l e e l + e + @1 @ - 1 = -  = - Te T s  u  " u e " e @ 1 @ : 1 :  $onrol5 2e 2 e e ) e ) a  a  r oom o m e  m e ) m e ) r e a r  a u  r u e r  e - Te T s e  s   u  " u e " e @ % @ : % : ) l ) a l $ a e $ e i n i n a a h o h  o  *a  *a e  r e r " a "  a h   h  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ h $ a h n a g n e g  e - Te T s u"e " e @ = @ : ) l ) a$ a e $ e i n i n a n a n i$ i e $ - e *a -  *a e  r e r " a "  a h   h  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e  h  e h e $ ha h n a g n e g  e S*i S*i $  h $ h  e  s e  s  u  " u e " e % %   =  =  #" s #" e s r e  r e  e h  e h e $ hange g  e  Al l Al o l * o  * h  e h m e m " o " h o o $ ool  o  o r oom  e  m e ) m e ) r e a r  a u  r u e r  e Com Co ) m a ) r a e e  o  o  h  e h e $ o $ n o  n r  o r l o  l  II I I I . 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The rea$ion is in e.uili"rium no n  $h $ a h n a g n e g < C Co on$ H HC Cll The $ olor The $ o $ l o or o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e s , rom ! e ! llo* o The $on$enraion o, he $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s o  o  o o r o a r n a g n e g re r a$ a  $ an a   H
 <5 in$reases& so h  e h or o a r n a g n e g rae o, ,or* *aar+ rea$ion in i $ n r $ eases Th T e h e rea$ion shi h , i  , s o
he righ& an+ )ro+u$es more Cr Cr %- %#   orange5 e < 6   aa#H The $olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e , r , o r m o m o r o a r n a g n e g The $on$enraion o, he $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s "a " $ a 2 $ o !ello* )  r ) o r + o u + $ u  $  #H  -5 in$reases& so he o he h i niial rae o, "a$2* *aar+ rea$ion $o $ l o o l r o  r in i $ n r $ eases Th T e h e rea$ion shi h , i  , s o he le, an+ )ro+u$es more Cr# %- 4   !el e l l o l *5 o  %. . E*UI E*U +I I BR +IB I R A I A OF OF ACID I )BAS BA E E IND N IC I ATOR TORS ;.uili"rium S! sem: -4 - 5 4 0 5  0 a  / a 0 / 0 , , -%O" O 0 "  -&O,a/0 , 45 4 a  / a 0 / Add!t!on P Prred!cted O Ob bser3at!on E Ex x"anat!on outc t ome one Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r + o + e o s e The $ olor is sill i  ole $  o $ n o  n r  o r l o 5 l no $hang n e g 6 7 H HC Cll The $olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e s , r , o r m o m  i  o i l o e l  e   o  The $o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n r  a r  a i  o i n o n o , o , H < $h $ a h ng n e g s e "  l " u l e u & e & , r , o r m o m " l " u l e u e  o  o g r g e r e e n e in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e s a n a + n +  h  e h e r e r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o sh s i h , i  , s  s  o  o  h  e h e l e l , e  ,   6 7  aa# #H H The $olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e , r , o r m o m g r g e r e e n e n  o  Th T e h e # H # - o, a#H a r #H ea$s *i *ih $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s o  iole H< so s o  h  e h e $ o $ n o $enraion o , o , H < iole in i n  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o n + e + $ e r $ e r a e s a e s e s o s o  h  e h re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o n s h s i h , i  , s s  o  o  h  e h e r i r g i h g  h    6 7 H HC Cll The $olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e s , r , o r m o m  i  o i l o e l  e   o  Th T e h e $ o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n r  a r  a i  o i n o n o , o , H< $h $ a h ng n e g s e gr g e r e e n e in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e s a g a a g i a n i n *h e *h n e n a + a + + i + n i g n HCl HCl i n i  n o  o  h  e h e s o s l o u l  u i  o i n o & n & a n a + n +  h  e h re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o n s h s i h , i  , s s  o  o  h  e h e l e l , e  ,   &. . C O4 C P+ O4P E6 +E6 I ON FOR 4 FOR A 4 TI A ON ON ;.uili"rium S! sem: Fe&, & , , SC S N C  7Fe 7 N Fe C N S C 8 S %, % Pa  l Pa e l e !e ! l e l l o l *5 o *5 Cl  e Cl a e r a 5 5 9e+5 Add!t!on P Prred!cted Obser3at!on E Ex x"anat!on outc t ome one Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r + o + e o s e The $olor is sill orange
The rea$ion is a e.uili"rium $  o $ n o  n r  o r l o 5 l no $hang n e g 0 0 0  1 0 7 1 7 >e Cl >e = Th T e h e $ o $ l o or Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e , r , o r m o m o r o a r n a g n e g h  e h n e n i n i $ n r $ e r a e s a i s n i g n g  >e=< =  "! $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s  o  o r e r + e o ligh h re+ a+ a + + i + n i g n g >e Cl >e =& &  h  e h e s ! s s !  s e  m e m s h s i h , i  , s  o  o  he h e r igh g  h  a n+  >e  C >e S CS%< in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e  s 001 7 8SC The $ olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e , r , o r m o m o r o a r n a g n e g h  e h n e n i n i $ n r $ e r a e s a i s n i g n g  SC- "! $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s  o  o r e r + e o  o + a + r a 2 r e 2 r e o r o a r n a g n e g a+ a + + i + n i g n g >e Cl >e =& &  h  e h e s ! s s !  s e  m e m s h s i h , i  , s  o  o  he h e r igh g  h  a n+  >e  C >e S CS%< in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e  s 67  a a# #H H The $olor Th T e h e $o $ l o or $ha h n a g n es ,rom orang n e g e h  e h n e n a+ a + + i + n i g n g a#H in n o  o he h $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s o  so s l o u l  u i  o i n o & n & #H -r  e r a e $ a s *i  *i h  h > e >e=<  !ello* o )ale !ello*
o ,orm he )re$i)iae& so he $o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n r  a r  a i  o i n o n o , o , >e =< +e$r $ e r a e s a es e an a + n +  h  e h e s ! s s !  s e  m e m s h s i h , i s  s  o  o  h  e h e l e l , e  , C Co ol+ The $olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e , r , o r m o m o r o a r n a g n e g This s!sem i s e( e ohermal $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s  o  o r e r + e o  o + a + r a 2 r e 2 r e o r o a r n a g n e g re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o & n & *h e *h n e n  h  e h e  e  m e ) m e ) r e a r  a u  r u e r +e + $ e r $ e r a e s a es e & s &  h  e h e s ! s s !  s e  m e m s h s i h , i  , s  s  o  h  e h e r ig i h g  h  a n a + n + i n i $ n r $ e r a e s a i s n i g n >e  CS >e %< H Ho o The $olor Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e , r , o r m o m o r o a r n a g n e g h  e h n e n  h  e h e  e  m e ) m e ) r e a r  a u  r u e r $h $ a h n a g n e g s e s o  o  o ) a ) l a e l e ! e ! l e l l o l * o in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e & s &  h  e h e s ! s s !  s e  m e m s h s i h , i  , s  s  o  !e ! l e l l o l * o h  e h e l e, e  ,  a n a + n + i n i $ n r $ e r a e s a i s n i g n g  >e  =< =    SC  - 0 0 1  7 1 7 Ag# Ag = The h e *h *hie >or >o m r a m  a i  o i n o n o , o , *h i *h  i e  e ) r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  #$$ #$ u $ r u r r i r n i g n g  he h e r ea e $ a  $ i  o i n o : n Ag <<  )  r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  an+ *h ie soluion SC-E  E Ag SCF Ag *h * i h  i e  5 e The h a) a ) ) e ) a e r a s r s! s s !  s e  m e m s hi,s o  h  e h e l e, + u + e  o - h  e h e + e + $ e r $ e r a e s a e s e o , o ,  SC   SC  '. ' . E* E U * I U +I I BR B I R A I A OF OF PR P EC E I C PI I TA TATIO TI N ON RE R A E C A TI C ON O S N ;.uili"rium S! sem: Ca%, % a  / a 0 / 0 , , C % %O' a  / a 0 /  Ca C C a %O's  0 s Add!t!on P Pr red!cted Obser3at!on E Ex x"anat!on outc t ome  a  %- %C%#4E  E % a % << C < %#4 0 0 1  1 7 hie >or >o m r a m  a i  o i n o n o , o , *h i *h  i e  e ) r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  a  %- %< %C%#4 )  r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  an a + n + l i l . i u . i u + i + " e " $ e o $ m o e m s e $ o $ l o o l r o l r es e s s C%#4 <  Ca < % E CaC%#4 Th T e h e s ! s s !  s em e m s h s i h , i s  s  o  o  he h e r i r gh g  h   0 0 1  1 7 hie >or >o m r a m  a i  o i n o n o , o , *h i *h  i e  e ) r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  H %- %C%#4E  E % H % -<  C < %#4 H%C%#4 )  r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  an a + n + l i l . i u . i u + i + h a h s a s l i l g i h g  h  *h i *h  i e  e $ o $ l o or o  r Th T e h e $ o $ n o $ n e $ n e  n r  a r  a i  o i n o n o , o , C %- %#4  in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s e a n a + n +  h  e h e r ea e $ a  $ i  o i n o n s h s i h , i  , s  o  o  he h e r igh g  h 6 7 HCl Pre Pr $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  e i s i Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r $ h $ a h n a g n e g s e s , r , o r m o m l i l gh g  h H< ,r , om HCl HCl r ea$s *i  *i h  h C %- %#4 +issole+ *hie  o $ olorless o ,orm H %- %C%#4& & s o s o  he  C  %#4  +e + $ e r $ e r a e s a es e s a n a +  h  e h e s !sem s hi,s o  o he h e le, 6 6 7 7  H  4# #H H hie >or >o m r a m  a i  o i n o n o , o , *h i *h  i e  e ) r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  #H-,  o , r o m r m H 4#H r #H ea$ $ s  s *i *ih )  r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  an+ *h ie li.ui+ Ca%<  o  o , o , r o m r m *h i *h  i e  e ) r ) e r $ e i $ ) i i )  i a   a e  Ca#H5 %< %& & s o s o  he  Ca  %  +e + $ e r $ eas a e s s e s a n a + n +  h  e h e r e r a e $ a ions shi h , i  , s  s  o  o  he e l e, e  ,  (. . TE4 T PER PE ATUR TU E EFFE E C EFFE TS TS ON O E*U E I+I + BR B IA ;.uili"rium S! sem: Co C -  % %O09 %, % a  / a 0 / 0 , , 'C" C a  / a 0 /  CoC" C ' a/0 / , 9-%O" O 0 "    !  n !  n 0  0 d  e d e e  e  b"u " e u 0 De D s e c s r c ! r t  ! t o ! n Pre Pr d e ! d c ! t c e t d e Obser3at!on E Ex x"anat!on o2 cond! d t! t o ! n o s outc t ome Not; t ! ; n< c;an a < n e < d e Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r i s i
The $olor $hanges o iole The C Cll-a  + a + + i + n i g n g , r , o r m o m H Cl HCl is n o n  o )  i ) n i 2 n en e o n u o g u h g h , o , r o r  he s ! s s !  s e  m e m s o o  he soluion  urns o o i  ole -ot -o t =a = t a e t r e ba b t; t Th T e h e $ o $ l o o l r o r i s i The $olor $hanges o "lue This s!sem is en+ohermal "  l " u l e u re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o s n & s & *h e *h n e n i n$ n r $ e r a e s a i s n i g n e  m e ) m e ) r e aure  h  e h e r ea$ion s hi,s o  o  h  e h e r i r g i h g  h  a n a + n +  h  e h [CoCl4]%− in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e Ice> e = > a = t a e t r e The $olor is The $olor $hanges o )in2
hen +e$reasing em)eraure  ba b t; t )  i ) n i 2 n 2 h  e h e r e r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o n s h s i h , i  , s  s  o  o  h  e h e l e l , e  , an a + n +  h  e h [Co Co H  %< %#56 #5 ]% in i $ n r $ e r a e s a e s s e I5 I . 5 . CO C NC ON +U C+ S U I S O I N O : N Dur Du i r n i g n g ' ' e . e u . i u li l " i r " i r u i m u m s ! s s !  s e  m e s m s a " a o "  o e  e i n i n  h  i h s i s e ( e ) ( e ) r e i r m i e m n e  n &  & *h e *h n e n *e *e a ))l ) !ing s resses in e a$h o , o re r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o & n &  h  e h e r e r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o n *i l *i l l s h s i h , i  ,   o  o  h  e h e + i + r i e r $ e  $ i  o i n o n  ha h  a  r e+ e u + $ u e $ e h  e h e e , e , , e$ e  $  o , o ,  h  i h s i s $ h $ a h n a g n e g e a $ a $ $ o $ r o + r i + n i g n g  o h  e h e L e L e Ch a Ch  a e  l e i l e i r e / r s / s ) r ) i r n i $ n i $ ) i l ) e l  e  I , I * e * e 2 n 2 o n * o *  h  e h e r i r g i h g  h  + i + r i e r $ e  $ i  o i n o n o , o , r e r a e $ a  $ i  o i n o & n & *e $ a $ n a $o $ n o  n rol& r a r i a s i e s e o , o re r + e u + $e e  h  e h e ) r ) o r + o u + $ $ s  s a s a s  h  e h e *a! *a ! *e *e *a n *a  n  