Tài liệu lý thuyết dịch - Chương trình Biên dịch và Phiên dịch

TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF LỜI NÓI ĐẦU
Translation and Interpreting Studies là một tập hợp các tài liệu về các vấn đề lý
thuyết Biên dịch và Phiên dịch dành cho sinh viên Khoa Ngoại ngữ, Học viện Tài chính.
Cuốn tài liệu này cung cấp các kiến thức cơ bản và quan trọng nhất trong Lý
thuyết Biên - Phiên dịch; bao gồm:
Unit 1: An Overview of Translation and Interpreting;
Unit 2: The process of Translating; Unit 3: Translation Methods;
Unit 4: Translation Procedures;
Unit 5: Translation Equivalence;
Unit 6: Translation Quality Assessment;
Unit 7: Theoretical Aspects of Interpreting; Unit 8: Professional issues.
Cuốn tài liệu này sẽ giúp sinh viên bước đầu làm quen với Biên dịch và Phiên
dịch đồng thời giới thiệu với các em những kỹ năng dịch chủ yếu, xen kẽ vào đó
là những bài thực hành nhỏ giúp các em hiểu rõ hơn về các phần lý thuyết này.
Ngoài ra còn giới thiệu những tài liệu tham khảo về lý thuyết dịch bằng cả tiếng
anh và tiếng việt nhằm giúp sinh viên hiểu rõ hơn về vấn đề này đồng thời trong
một số phần đưa ra các nội dung tóm lược để sinh viên tự tìm tài liệu đọc thêm
qua đó phát huy khả năng tự nghiên cứu.
Cuốn tài liệu này được soạn thảo lần đầu tiên và đưa vào sử dụng thử nghiệm làm
tài liệu học môn Lý thuyết dịch tại Học viện Tài chính, trên cơ sở đó chỉnh sửa
để hoàn thiện hơn phù hợp với yêu cầu môn học. Chính vì vậy, các tác giả rất
mong nhận được sự đóng góp của đồng nghiệp và các em sinh viên trong quá
trình sử dụng tài liệu này. Địa chỉ nhận góp ý: nguyenthuytrang@hvtc.edu.vn. 1
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
UNIT 1: AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING WHAT IS TRANSLATION Translation can be seen as
1. A product: the text that has been translated
2. A process: the activity of translating
DEFINITIONS OF TRANSLATION
Since antiquity (3000BC-Newmark 1986), translation has become popular in
language learning and daily life. So far, there have been many definitions of
translation, and the following are some of them:
1. Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or
form to another, to turn into one’s own or another’s language. (The Merriam-
Webster Dictionary, 1974). Translation is basically a change of form. When we
speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases,
sentences, paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a
language. It is the structural part of language which is actually seen in print or
heard in speech. In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the
form of the receptor/target language. But how is this change accomplished? What
determines the choices of form in the translation?
2. Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has
been expressed in one language (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies.
3. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by
a representation of an equivalent text in a second language.
4. Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended the text.
5. Translators are concerned with written texts. They render written texts from
one language into another language. Translators are required to translate texts
which arrange from simple items including birth certificates or driving licenses 2
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
to more complex written materials such as articles in journals of various kinds,
business contracts and legal documents.”
6. Translating may be defined as the process of transforming signs or
representations into other signs or representations. If the originals have some
significance, we generally require that their images also have the same
significance, or, more realistically, as nearly the same significance as we can get.
Keeping significance invariant is the central problem in translating between natural languages.
7. Translation may be defined as follows: the replacement of textual material in
one language (SI.) by equivalent material in another language (TL).
8. One of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is
the addressee, who is the intended receiver or audience of the target text with
their culture-specific world-knowledge, their expectations and their
communicative needs. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since
to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and
target addressees in target circumstances".
9. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalent of the source-language message.
10. Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text which
is as close an equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of the
content and style of the original.
11. When the translation is an end in itself, in the sense of simply seeking to
extend an originally monolingual communicative process to include receivers in
another language, then it must be conceived as an integral communicative
performance, which without any extra-textual additions (notes, explanations etc.)
provides an insight into the cognitive meaning, linguistic form and
communicative function of the SL text.
12. The linguistic approaches basically saw translating as a code-switching
operation. With the more pragmatic reorientation at the beginning of the 1970s,
the focus shifted from the word or phrase to the text as a unit of translation, but 3
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
the fundamental linguistic trend was not broken. Equivalence as a basic concept
or even constituent of translation was never really questioned.
13. The ideal translation would be one "in which the aim in the TL [target
language] is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and
communicative function of a SL [source-language] text". The requirement of
equivalence thus has the following form: quality (or qualities) X in the SL text
must be preserved. This means that the source-language content, form, style,
function, etc. must be preserved, or at least that the translation must seek to
preserve them as far as possible.
Translation has its own excitement, its own interest. A satisfactory translation is
always possible, but a good translator is never satisfied with it. It can usually be
improved. There is no such thing as a perfect, ideal or 'correct' translation. A
translator is always trying to extend his knowledge and improve his means of
expression; he is always pursuing facts and words. He works on four levels:
translation is first a science, which entails the knowledge and verification of the
facts and the language that describes them - here, what is wrong, mistakes of
truth, can be identified; secondly, it is a skill, which calls for appropriate language
and acceptable usage; thirdly, an art, which distinguishes good from
undistinguished writing and is the creative, the intuitive, sometimes the inspired,
level of the translation; lastly, a matter of taste, where argument ceases,
preferences are expressed, and the variety of meritorious translations is the
reflection of individual differences. The study of translation can set up a
framework of reference for an activity that serves as a means of communication,
a transmitter of culture, a technique (one of many, to be used with discretion) of
language learning, and a source of personal pleasure.  Translation involves
- studying the Source language text (lexicon, grammatical structures,
communication situation and cultural context);
- analyzing it in order to determine its meaning;
- then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammar
which are appropriate in the Target language and its cultural context (Larson) 4
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
 Translation is the expression in another language (or target language) of
what has been expressed in another source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences (Dubois, 1973)
 Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one
language by as equivalent text in a second language.
(Hartman and Stork, 1972, p.713)
 The aim is to as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical
features of the ‘source language’ original by finding equivalents in the
‘target language’. At the same time all factual information contained in
the original text… must be retained in the translation
(Hartman and Stork, 1972, p.713
 Often, though not by any means always, it is rendering the meaning of a
text into another language in the same way that the author intended the text. (Newmark, 1995, p.5)  Translation consists of
- Studying the SL text (lexicon, grammatical structure, communication
situation, and cultural context);
- Analyzing it in order to determine its meaning;
- The reconstructing this SAME meaning using the lexical and
grammatical features which are appropriate in the TL and its cultural context” (Larson) DEFINITION OF INTERPRETING
Interpreting, a form of translation, is rendering information and ideas from one
language into another language by means of speaking. Interpreters are concerned 5
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
with the spoken word. They convey orally whether to an individual or a group
the meaning of the spoken word, from one language to another.
Kade (1968) defined interpreting as a form of Translation in which:
- The source-language text is presented only once and thus cannot be reviewed or replayed, and
- The target-language text is produced under time pressure, with little
chance for correction and revision 4 FORMS OF TRANSLATION
1. Written – written translation (Reading to Writing/ Translation):
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text in
written form by means of an equivalent target-language text in written form.
2. Oral – oral translation (Interpreting): Interpreting, a form of translation, is
rendering information and ideas from one language into another language
by means of speaking. Interpreters are concerned with the spoken word.
They convey orally whether to an individual or a group the meaning of the
spoken word, from one language to another.
3. Written – oral translation (Sight translation): Sight translation transforms
a written message into a spoken message. It involves reading a text silently
in the source language, and then speaking it in the target language.
4. Oral – written translation (Dictation translation) TYPES OF TRANSLATION  Non-commercial - Language exercise - Instructional material - For pleasure  Professional - Literary translation
- Scientific and technical books - Drama, screen translation 6
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF - Informatory material
NECESSARY SKILLS AND QUALITIES OF INTERPRETERS
- Language skills: active listening, speaking - Analytical skills - Cultural knowledge - Subject knowledge - Ethical behavior - Good memory - Note-taking skills - Public speaking skills
NECESSARY SKILLS AND QUALITIES OF TRANSLATORS
 Language skills: reading and writing skills  Analytical skills:
- Identify the writer’s style: literacy, scientific, technical, informative, persuasive, argumentative, …
- Identify the language level used in the text: standard, slang, religious, …
- Problem-spotting and problem-solving  Cultural knowledge  Subject knowledge  Ethical behavior
 Researching/resourcing skills  Computer skills FORM VS. MEANING
Larson (1984: 3) states that translation is basically a change of form. These forms
are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of
language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech. Baker (1992: 24) says
that the form of the source language in translation is replaced by the equivalent
lexical item (form) of the receptor language. However, there is often no
equivalent in the target language for a particular form in the source text. 7
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
According to Larson (1984: 3), translation is done by going from the form of the
first language to the form of second language by way of semantic structure. When
a translator makes a translation, it means that he or she transfers meaning of
source text. What is necessary to consider is that the meaning must be maintained
constantly or, in other words, when the change of form occurs, the meaning must
be maintained. It is the characteristic of a language that the same meaning
component will occur in several surface structure lexical items (forms).
In the translation process, the first thing to do is understand the total meaning of
the source text. There are three types of “meaning” that can be determined in the
analysis of meaning of the source text (Nida and Taber, 1982: 34), namely (1)
grammatical meaning, (2) referential meaning, and (3) connotative meaning. In
grammatical meaning, when one thinks of meaning, it is almost inevitably in
terms of words or idioms. Generally, grammar is taken for granted since it seems
to be merely a set of arbitrary rules about arrangement, rules that must be
followed if one wants to understand, but not rules themselves that seem to have
any meaning. Referential meaning refers to words as symbols which refer to
objects, event, abstracts, and relations. Connotative meaning refers to how the
users of the language react, whether positively or negatively, to the words and their combination.
Translation has been performed as a process which begins with the source text,
then the meaning of the text is analyzed, discovered, transferred, and re-
expressed in the receptor language. In actual practice, however, the translator
moves back and forward from the source text to the receptor text. Sometimes he
or she will analyze the source text in order to find the meaning, then restructure
this meaning in the receptor language, and move back once again to look at the
source text. In translation, the translators should know the types of meanings. By
knowing what meaning they should produce, the messages of the source text can
be transferred well. Then, the well-transferred meaning will make easier to understand for the readers.
Equivalence in Translation
Machali (1998: 3) states that target language equivalents have to be sought not
simply in terms of the “sameness of meaning”, but in terms of the greatest
possible overlap of situational range. Thus equivalence in translation should not 8
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
be approached as a search for sameness since sameness of meaning cannot easily
exist between the source language and the target language.
Nida (1964: 159) proposes two basic orientations in translating: formal
equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal equivalence focuses attention on
the message itself, both form and content. The message in the receptor language
should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language.
On the contrary of formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence does not concern
with matching the receptor language message with the source language message,
but with the dynamic relationship. A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at
complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of
behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.
Bell (1991: 6) states that texts in different languages can be equivalent in different
degrees (full or partly equivalent), in respects of different levels of presentation
(equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and
different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for phrase, sentence-for-sentence).
Sometimes, the source language text has no meaning in the target language text
that the meaning in the target language can be fully or partly equivalent, but the
meaning in the target text can be said as equivalent to the meaning in source text
when they have function in the same communicative situation and express the same purpose.
 Form: surface structure (spoken or written): changes in translation
 Meaning: must be held constant and has priority over form
 When translating/ interpreting: Meaning should be kept constant, often
necessary to change the form to avoid word-for-word translation and to
produce the natural form of the receptor language (He’s a fast runner)
 Meaning components are packaged differently in V and E anh/em = brother, xanh = blue/green
 Same meaning components occur in several forms lamb, ram, ewe = cừu,
TAY: ăn bằng tay, bắt tay, gẫy tay, làm bằng tay 9
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
 One form represents several meanings RUN: boy, car, clock, nose
MY: car, brother, foot, singing, book, train, village
 One meaning can be expressed by many forms
He runs fast/ He is a fast runner.
Is this seat taken?/ May I sit here?/ Is there anyone sitting here
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION - 1
1. What is the aim of translating?
2. What are the basic characteristics of translation, according to the definitions of translation given above?
3. What is the nature of translation?
4. What qualities do you think a translator needs to have to do the job based on the
characteristics described in your definition?
5. What qualities do you think an interpreter needs to have to do the job based on the
characteristics described in your definition?
6. Point out the basic tasks the translator must perform in the job. Give examples.
7. What is the significance of meaning in translation? 10
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
UNIT 2: THE ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT READING THE TEXT  Two purposes:
- To understand what it is about
- To analyze it from the translator’s viewpoint
 The translator’s tasks:
- To define the writer’s intention and the way the text is written
- To select suitable translation methods and identifying particular problems
 Reading skills required:
- General reading: to get the gist
- Close reading: to understand words both in and out of the context
You begin the job by reading the original for two purposes: first, to understand
what it is about, second, to analyze it from a “translator’s point of view, which is
not the same as a linguist’s or a literary critic. You have to determine its intention
and the way it is written for the purpose of selecting a suitable translation method
and identifying particular and recurrent problems.
Understanding the text requires both general and close reading. General reading
to get the gist; here you may have to read encyclopedias, textbooks, or specialist
papers to understand the subject and the concepts, always bearing in mind that
for the translator the function precedes the description – the important thing about
the neutrino in context is not that it is a stable elementary particle – preserving
the law of conservation of mass and energy, but that now the neutrino has been
found to have mass, the Universe is calculated to be twice as large as previously
thought, Chair, chaise Stuhl, Sessel sedia, silla? Siul – they all present somewhat
different images, lax bundles of shapes that differ in each culture, united primarily
by a similar function, an object for a person to sit on plus a few essential formal
features, such as a board with a back and four legs. A knife is for cutting with,
but the blade and the handle are important too – they distinguish the knife from
the scissors. Close reading is required, in any challenging text, of the words both 11
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
out of and in context. In principle, everything has to be looked up that does not
make good sense in its context. THE INTENTION OF THE TEXT
In reading, you search for the intention of the text, you cannot isolate this from
understanding it, they go together and the title may be remote from the content as
well as the intention. Two texts may describe a battle or a riot or a debate, stating
the same facts and figures, but the type of language used and even the
grammatical structures (passive voice, impersonal verbs often used to disclaim
responsibility) in each case may be evidence of different points of view. The
intention of text represents the SL writer’s attitude to the subject matter. A
summary of this nature, which uses only a few key words from the original,
appears to be isolated from the language, simply to show what happens in real
life, and it is indispensable to the translator. But he still has to return to the text.
He still has to translate the text, even if he has to simplify, rearrange, clarify, slim
it of its redundancies, pare it down.
THE INTENTION OF THE TRANSLATOR
Usually, the translator’s intention is identical with that of the author of the SL
text. But he may be translating an advertisement, a notice, or a set of instructions
to show his client how such matters are formulated and written in the source
language, rather than how to adapt them in order to persuade or instruct a new TL
readership. And again, he may be translating a manual of instructions for a less
educated readership, so that the explanation in his translation may be much larger than the “reproduction”.
 represents the writer’s attitude to the subject matter
Eg. That was clever of him  ironic or sincere
He was clever --> ???
Should translators maintain the intention of a text/ the attitude of the author? Often: should be identical
Sometimes: adapted to make it suitable to new readership 12
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF TEXT TYPES 4 types of text (Nida) a) Narrative
A dynamic sequence of events with emphasis on the verbs, verb- nouns and phrasal verbs b) Description
Be static with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival nouns c) Discussion
A treatment of ideas with emphasis on abstract nouns (concepts),
verbs of thought, mental activity, logical arguments and connectives d) Dialogue
Emphasis on colloquialism STYLISTIC SCALES
Formality: The scale of formality has been variously expressed, notably by Martin Joos and Strevens.
1) Officialese: “The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is
categorically prohibited in this establishment”
2) Official: “The consumption of nutriments is prohibited”.
3) Formal: “You are requested not to consume food in this establishment”.
4) Neutral: “Eating is not allowed here”
5) Informal: “Please don’t eat here”
6) Colloquial: “You can’t feed your face here”
7) Slang: “Lay off the nosh”
8) Taboo: “Lay off the fucking nosh”
Note that there is some correlation between formality and emotional tone, in that
an official style is likely to be factual, while colloquialisms and slang tend to be emotive. 13
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
Generality or Difficulty (introduced by Newmark)
1) Simple: The floor of the sea is covered with rows of big mountains and deep pits
2) Popular: The floor of the oceans is covered with great mountain chains and deep trenches
3) Neutral: A graveyard of animal and plant remains lies buried in the earth’s crust
4) Educated: The latest step in vertebrate evolution was tool-making man
5) Technical: Critical path analysis is an operational research technique used in management
6) Opaquely Technical: Neuraminic acid in the form of its alkali-stable
methoxy derivative was first isolated by Klenk from gangliosides
Emotional tones (introduced by Newmark)
1) Intense: ‘Absolutely wonderful’, ‘enormously successful’, ‘superbly control ed’
2) Warm: ‘Gentle, soft, heart-warming melodies’
3) Factual ‘cool’ “Significant, exceptionally well judged, personable, presentable, considerable’
4) Understatement (cold) ‘Not’, ‘undignified’ THE READERSHIP
On the basis of the variety of language used in the original, you attempt to
characterize the readership of the original and then of the translation, and to
decide how much attention you have to pay to the TL readers, (In the case of a
poem or any work written primarily as self-expression the amount is, we suggest,
very little,) You may try to assess the level of education, the class, age and sex of
the readership if these are ‘marked’.
The average text for translation tends to be for an educated, middle-class
readership in an informal, not colloquial style. The most common variety of
'marked' error in register among student translators tends to be ‘Colloquial’ and
‘intimate’, e.g. use of phrases such as ‘more and more for ‘increasingly’ (de plus 14
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
en plus), ‘above air’ for ‘particularly’ (surwut); ‘job’ for ‘work’; ‘got well’ for
‘recovered’ and excessively familiar phrasal verbs (‘get out of’, ‘get rid of’). The
other common error, use of formal or official register (e.g. ‘decease’ for ‘death’),
also shows signs of translationese. These tokens of language typify the student-
translators instead of the readership they are translating for; they may epitomise
their degree of knowledge and interest in the subject and the appropriate culture,
i.e. how motivated they are. All this will help you to decide on the degree of
formality, generality (or specificity) and emotional tone you must express when you work on the text. THE TEXTUAL LEVEL
Working on the text level, you intuitively and automatically make certain
‘conversions’; you transpose the SL grammar (clauses and groups) into their
‘ready’ TL equivalents and you translate the lexical units into the sense that
appears immediately appropriate in the context of the sentence.
Your base level when you translate is the text. This is the level of the literal
translation of the source language into the target language, the level of the
translationese you have to eliminate, but it also acts as a corrective of paraphrase
and the parer-down of synonyms. So, a part of your mind may be on the text level
whilst another is elsewhere. Translation is pre-eminently the occupation in which
you have to be thinking of several things at the same time. THE REFERENTIAL LEVEL
You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level. Whether
a text is technical or literary or institutional, you have to make up your mind.
summarily and continuously, what it is about, what it is in aid of, what the writer's
peculiar slant on it. For each sentence, when it is not clear, when there is an
ambiguity, when the writing is abstract or figurative, you have to ask yourself:
What is actually happening here? and why? For what reason, on what grounds, for what purpose?
The referential goes hand in hand with the textual level. All languages have
polysemous words and structures which can be finally solved only on the
referential level, beginning with a few multi-purpose, overloaded prepositions 15
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
and conjunctions, through dangling participles (‘reading the paper’, ‘the dog
barked loudly’) to general words. THE COHESIVE LEVEL
Beyond the second factual level of translating, there is a third, generalised, level
linking the first and the second level, which you have to bear in mind. This is the
‘cohesive’ level; it follows both the structure and the moods of the text: the
structure through the connective words (conjunctions, enumerations, reiterations,
definite article, general words, referential synonyms, punctuation marks) linking
the sentences, usually proceeding from known information (theme) to new
information (theme; proposition, opposition, continuation, reiteration,
opposition, conclusion - for instance - or thesis, antithesis, synthesis. Thus, the
structure follows the train of thought; determines, say, the ‘direction’ afd'ailleurs
(‘besides’, ‘further’, ‘anyway’) in a text, ensures that a colon has a sequel, that
ulterieur has a later reference; that there is a sequence of time, space and logic in the text.
The second factor in the cohesive level is mood. Again, this can be shown as a
dialectical factor moving between positive and negative, emotive and neutral. THE LEVEL OF NATURALNESS
You have to bear in mind that the level of naturalness of natural usage is
grammatical as well as lexical (i.e., the most frequent syntactic structures, idioms and words that are
likely to be appropriately found in that kind of stylistic context), and, through
appropriate sentence connectives, may extend to the entire text. Naturalness is
easily defined, not so easy to be concrete about. Natural usage comprises a variety
of idioms or styles or registers determined primarily by the ‘setting’ of the text,
i.e. where it is typically published or found, secondarily by the author, topic and
readership, all of whom are usually dependent on the setting. COMBINING THE FOUR LEVELS
We are suggesting that you keep in parallel the four levels - the textual, the
referential, the cohesive, the natural: they are distinct from but frequently impinge 16
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
on and may be in conflict with each other. Your first and last level is the text;
then you have to continually bear in mind the level of reality (which may be
simulated, i.e, imagined, as well as real), but you let it filter into the text only
when this is necessary to complete or secure the readership's understanding of the
text, and then normally only within informative and vocative texts.
 “Nobody can translate with any reasonable chance of success if they do
not really know for whom (for which audience) and for what (which
purpose the text is to fulfill) they have to realize the mediation” (Gouadec, 1990, p.334)
 A group of readers that the text is aimed at
 The readership of SL text should be characterized
 Then the readership of the translation  decide how much attention to pay to the TL readers
FEATURES OF THE READERSHIP 1) The level of education 2) The class 3) Age and sex (if marked)
Notes: There is a tendency to make the translation for educated, middle-
class readership in an informal, colloquial style
THREE TYPES OF READERSHIP 1) Expert 2) Educated layman 3) The uninformed THE SETTING OF THE TEXT
You have to decide on the likely setting: Where would the text be published in
the TL? What is the TL equivalent of the SL periodical, newspaper, textbook,
journal, etc? or Who is the client you are translating for and what are his
requirements? You may have to take account of briefer titles, absence of sub-
titles and sub-headings, shorter paragraphs and other features of the TL house- style, 17
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
You have to make several assumptions about the SL readership. From the setting
of the SL text, as well as the text itself, you should assess whether the readership
is likely to be motivated (keen to read the text), familiar with the topic and the
culture, and ‘at home’ in the variety of language used. The three typical reader
types are perhaps the expert, the educated layman, and the uninformed. You then
have to consider whether you are translating for the same or a different type of
TL readership, perhaps with less knowledge of the topic or the culture, or a lower
standard of linguistic education. Finally, if you are translating a poem or an
important authoritative statement, should you consider the TL reader at all, apart
from concessions or cultural scraps to help him out (e.g, translating 'a half-
holiday’ as un apris-midi litre.)
1) Where would the text be published in the TL?
2) The TL equivalent of the SL: periodical, newspaper, textbook, journal?
3) The title, the absence of sub-title and sub-heading, shorter paragraph and
other features of the TL house style
4) The assumption about the TL readership: educated, familiar with the
topic/ culture, the variety of language used
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION - 2 1. What is SL/TL/ST/ TT?
2. How is the message reproduced?
3. How does the translator analyze the text for translation? Why is it important to analyze? 4. What is the source text?
5. Point out the basic tasks the translator must perform in the job. Give examples.
6. What is the importance of text style in translation?
7. How does the readership affect translation process? 18
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
UNIT 3: TRANSLATION METHODS
The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally
or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. Up
to the beginning of the nineteenth century, many writers favoured some kind of
Tree1 translation: the spirit, not the letter; the sense not the words; the message
rather than the form: the matter not the manner - This was the often revolutionary
slogan of writers who wanted the truth to be read and understood - Tyndale and
Dolet were burned at the stake, Wycliff’ s works were banned. Then at the turn
of the nineteenth century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that
the linguistic barriers were insuperable and that language was entirely the product
of culture, the view that translation was impossible gained some currency, and
with it that, if attempted at all, it must be as literal as possible. This view
culminated in the statements of the extreme literalists’ Walter Benjamin and Vladimir Nabokov.
The argument was theoretical: the purpose of the translation, the nature of the
readership, the type of text, was not discussed. Too often, writer, translator and
reader were implicitly identified with each other. Now the context has changed,
but the basic problem remains. I put it in the form of a flattened V diagram: THE METHODS
Word-for-word translation
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL immediately
below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated
singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are 19
TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES – FFL, AOF
translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to
understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.
Word for word translation (or sometimes direct/interlinear translation) focuses
mainly on translating words from the source text into the target language while
the word order of the original is preserved. This method of translation can be seen
in those cases where some value of humor is needed. It is also very useful for the
translator to understand and analyze the original text before translating it into the
target language. For instance, word for word translation Bạn đi đâu đấy? into
English can be “You are going where?” whereas the correct version must be
“Where are you going?”, or in the situation where an Englishman is giving a
consolence, saying “No worries or no problem” (không sao đâu), a Vietnamese
word for word translation may be “No star where”. Literal translation
The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents
but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-
translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
Literal translation is featured by the fact that grammatical structures and the
meaning of words are translated almost as closely as those in the target language
without paying attention to the situation or context (In this sense, many theorists
coincide literal translation with word-for-word translation). For example, the
question “Can you sit down?” can be literally translated into Vietnamese Anh có
thể ngồi xuống được không? but in fact it is really a request which can be
communicatively translated “Anh hãy ngồi xuống”, “Anh ngồi xuống đi”. . Faithful translation
A faithful Translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of
the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. It 'transfers'
cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical ‘abnormality’
(deviation from SL norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful
to the intentions and the text-realisation of the SL writer. 20